IGCSE Chemistry

Chapter 2
Experimental Techniques
Introduction to Measurement
• In order to communicate effectively, scientists all over the world use
the International System of Units (SI units) as common standard for
their measurements.
• In laboratory, measurements are usually carried out to find the
following:
• Time taken for reactions
• Mass of substances
• Volume of liquid and gases
• Temperature of substances
Measuring Time
Measuring Temperature
Measuring Mass
Measuring Volume of Gas
Measuring Volume of
Liquid
Apparatus Accuracy
Beaker • Used to estimate volume of liquid

Measuring cylinder • More accurate than beaker.

• Measures up to 0.1 cm3.

Burette • Used for measuring variable volumes of

liquids accurately.
• Measures up to 0.1 cm3.

Pipette • Used for measuring fixed volumes of liquids

accurately.
• E.g. 20.0 cm3, 25.0 cm3 and 50.0 cm3
• Measures up to 0.1 cm3.
 TERMS USED

• Solvent a substance that dissolves a solute

• solute a substance that is dissolved in a solvent
• solution a liquid mixture composed of two or more
substances

• saturated solution as a solution containing the

maximum concentration of a solute dissolved in the
solvent at a specific temperature
 TERMS……..

• residue a substance that remains after evaporation,

distillation, filtration or any similar process
• filtrate a liquid or solution that has passed through
a filter
 CHROMATOGRAPHY

• Chromatography
• Paper chromatography is used to separate
mixtures of soluble substances and to provide
information on the possible identity of the
substances present in the mixture. These are often
coloured substances such as food colourings, inks,
dyes or plant pigments.
• Phases
• Chromatography relies on two different 'phases':
• the mobile phase is the solvent that moves through
the paper, carrying different substances with it
• the stationary phase is contained on the paper and
does not move through it
• The different dissolved substances in a mixture are
attracted to the two phases in different proportions.
This causes them to move at different rates through
the paper.
 Interpreting a chromatogram

• Separation by chromatography produces a chromatogram. A

paper chromatogram can be used to distinguish
between pure and impure substances:
• a pure substance produces one spot on the chromatogram
• an impure substance produces two or more spots
• A paper chromatogram can also be used to identify substances by
comparing them with known substances. Two substances are
likely to be the same if:
• they produce the same number of spots, and these match in colour
• the spots travel the same distance up the paper (have the same
Rf value)
 Interpreting the chromatogram
for a brown ink

• In this chromatogram, the brown ink is made of a

mixture of the red, blue and yellow inks.
• This is because the spots in the brown ink are at the
same heights (and have the same Rf value) as the
reference inks
 Rf values

• Rf values can be used to identify unknown

chemicals if they can be compared to a range of
reference substances.
• The Rf value is always the same for a particular
substance if run in the same solvent system.
• Rf values vary from 0 (the substance is not attracted
to the mobile phase) to 1 (the substance is not
attracted to the stationary phase).
• As the solvent soaks up the paper, it carries the mixtures with it.
• Different components of the mixture will move at different rates.
• This separates the mixture out.
Methods of Purification

• To separate mixture that the substances do not react chemically.

• Including decanting, filtration, crystallization and distillation.
• Decanting: The process of removing a liquid from a solid which has settled
(sedimented) or form an immiscible heavier liquid (like oil and water)
by carefully pouring.
Filtration
• Filtration is a method for separating an insoluble solid from a liquid.
• When a mixture of sand and water is filtered:
• the sand stays behind in the filter paper (it becomes the residue)
• the water passes through the filter paper (it becomes the filtrate)
Crystallizatio
n
• Crystallization (or evaporation) is used to
separate a soluble solid from a liquid.
• For example, copper sulfate is soluble in water
and its crystals dissolve in water to form
copper sulfate solution.
• During crystallization, the water evaporates
away leaving solid copper sulfate crystals
behind.
Separating Funnel
 Simple
Distillation
• Simple distillation is a method for separating the solvent from a solution.
• For example, water can be separated from salt solution by simple distillation.
• This method works because water has a much lower boiling point than salt.
• When the solution is heated, the water evaporates.
• It is then cooled and condensed into a
separate container.
• The salt does not evaporate and so it stays
behind.
 Fractional
Distillation
• Fractional distillation is a method for
separating a liquid from a mixture of two or
more liquids.
• For example, liquid ethanol can be separated
from a mixture of ethanol and water by
fractional distillation.
• This method works because the liquids in the
mixture have different boiling points.
• When the mixture is heated, one liquid
evaporates before the other.
Fractional
Distillation
of
Petroleum
 Checking Purity of Substances
Using Distillation
• Every pure substance has its own particular melting point and boiling
point.
• One way to check the purity of the separated liquid is to measure its
boiling point.
• For example, pure water boils at 100°C.
• If it contains any dissolved solids, its boiling point will be higher than
this.