UNIT - I

Basic concepts
 Topics

 Introduction
 Internet Model
 Signals
 Transmission Media

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Network Models
Model of Communication

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OSI Model
OSI Reference Model

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Internet Model
 TCP/IP model

•Layer 1,2,3 are network support layers.

•-Layer 5 can be thought of as the user support
layer.
•-Layer4 links the two subgroups. SDM,CA/SoC 8
TCP/IP and OSI model

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Peer-to-peer processes

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Data Encapsulation

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An exchange using the Internet
model

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Layers Functionalities
 Physical Layer
 The physical layer controls and coordinates the
functions required to transmit a bit stream over a
physical medium.
 It takes care of the mechanical, electrical and
signaling characteristics of the physical interface
medium.
 It is influenced by line configuration and topology.

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 Functions
 Physical characteristics of the Interface and media
 It defines the functions and procedures for the physical
devices and media.
 Representation of bits
 Takes care of converting data into signal (analog, digital).
 They decide how 0’s and 1’s are represented using the
signal (voltage levels per data value)
 Bit rate / Data rate / Transmission rate
 How long the bit pattern has to persist (deals with micro
seconds)
 This decides number of bits that can be transmitted for a
second (bps)

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 Functions
 Synchronization
 The receiver should know when to sample the
signal to get the data,
 Since the receiver and sender may have different
characteristics. So clock signals are used to
synchronize data sampling.
 Transmission mode
 It determines the mode of transmission.
 It is simpler, half duplex and full duplex.
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 Data Link Layer
 It provides link level/node-to-node reliable
data transfer, thus makes physical link reliable.
 Influenced by line configuration and topology.
 It makes the physical layer appear error free to
the upper layer i.e. network layer.

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Node-to-node Data Transfer

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 Functions
 Physical address:
 Each node is assigned a physical address (Ethernet address
is 48bits / 6 bytes)
 Medium Access Protocol:
 Provides exclusive access to a device to the medium
(Incase of bus topology only one node can transmit, incase
of ring topology node which has the token will do
transmission)
 Error Control:
 Provides error free transmission.
 Sees that 0 is reached as 0 and 1 as 1.
 On error usually retransmission is done.

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 Functions
 Flow Control:
 Flow control mechanism enables the receiver to
control the rate at which the source transmits data
because the receiver may not be able to handle
current data.
 Framing:
 The data received from network layer is divided
into frames.

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 Network Layer
 The data link layer oversees the delivery of the packet
between two systems on the same network.
 Provides source to destination devices across multiple
networks.
 The network layer ensures that the each packet gets
from its point of origin to its final destination.

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Source-to-destination delivery

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 Functions
 Logical addressing
 Assigns logical address to the nodes.
 In Internet Model (TCP/IP Model)
 IP address is the logical address – 32 bit.
 Routing
 When the data has to travel across networks network layer
finds the path/route to the destination.
 Network layer treats each data packet as individual units.
 A network layer can be thin/fat.

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 Functions
 Fragmenting datagrams
 Each type of network has MTU
 If the datagram received from one network is longer than
the other network's MTU, it is necessary to divide the
datagram into smaller fragments for transmission.
 Header contains information that identifies each datagram
fragment and provides information about how to re-
assemble the fragments back into the original datagram.
 The Identification field identifies what datagram the
fragment belongs to, and the Fragmentation Offset field
tells what piece of the datagram this fragment is.

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 Transport Layer
 Bridges between application layer and network support
layer.
 The first end to end / process-to-process/ peer-to-peer
layer- layer transports data to and from the correct
application
 Provides the QOS requested

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 Functions
 Port addressing:
 In TCP/IP model the port address is 16bits.
 Each application has to be associated with a port in
order to send and receive data.
 The Transport layer header includes a destination
port number that identifies the destination
application program on the remote machine and a
source port number that identifies the application
on the originating machine.

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 Functions

 Connection Control:
 Transport layer provides 2 types of
transfer
 Connection Oriented-TCP
 Connectionless-UDP

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 Functions
 Connection-Oriented Protocols
 A logical connection with the communication
partner must be established before exchanging
data.
 This method of connection:
 Is highly reliable (because of acknowledgements )
 Requires more computational processing
 Has more overhead because of connection
establishment and termination
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 Functions
 Connectionless Protocols 
 Establishing a connection before sending data is not
necessary.
 It uses self-contained messages that:
 Include the full message
 Do not require any response
 Has no built-in reliability features, and therefore is best
suited for use in highly reliable networks or when
application itself can retransmit packets based on some
other criteria  (timeout, etc).
 Has lower overhead because it has no connection and no
setup requirements.

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 Functions
 Segmentation and reassembly and
sequencing
 The data unit received form the application layer is
divided into segments.
 Segments are assigned as a sequence number.
 The received segments are reassembled and they
are passed to the application layer.

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 Functions
 Error Control:
 The transport layer ensures the data is reaching the
destination application without any loss/error.
 If error is identifies retransmission occurs.
 Flow Control:
 Using flow control techniques, the destination
process controls the rate of transmission of the
source process.

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 Functions
 Multiplexing
 The data from the application is sent over the multiple low speed connection.
 Two types of multiplexing are
 Upward Multiplexing
 Down ward Multiplexing

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 Application layer
 The top layer of TCP/IP protocol.
 Enables the user (human or software), to access the
network.
 It provides user interfaces and support for services
such as electronic mail, remote file access and
transfer, access to the World Wide Web and so on.
 Includes all the processes that use Transport layer
protocols to deliver data to the Internet layer.
 There are many application protocols, and new
protocols are frequently added.

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Application layer

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 Functions
 Formatting data
 Data is formatted based on a computer’s
architecture
 .text formatting is done in ASCII on a UNIX®
host
 Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange
Code (EBCDIC) on an IBM mainframe
 Protocols operating at this layer of the model
encapsulate packets into streams or messages.

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 Functions
 Presenting data
 The Application layer makes sure that it
reaches the end users in the format specified.
 A common syntax ensures compatibility
between various end-user applications and
machines. The Application layer also
provides translations between locally
represented data and data used for transfer
between end systems.
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 Functions
 Transporting data
 The Application layer stipulates a transfer syntax,
which represents a coding agreement for the data
to be formatted and transferred
 RPC libraries allow high-level language programs
to make procedure decisions on other machines on
the network to organize the flow of data.
 Protocols, such as NIS and NFS, use RPC for
session management between clients and servers.

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 Functions

 E-Mail:
 It provides Electronic Mail Service over the internet and
intranet.
 File access and transfer:
 It provides access to file stored in remote services and
transfer.
 Remote login:
 It also enables you to log into remote machines.
 World Wide Web ( WWW):
 The application which holds maintains and provides access
to web of documents
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