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Digestive System: Human Anatomy
Digestive System: Human Anatomy
Human Anatomy
Organs of the digestive system are either part of the gastrointestinal tract
(alimentary canal) or accessory digestive organs. The GI tract includes the mouth,
esophagus, stomach and intestines, it is considered to be part of the outside of the
body because the mouth and anus both open to the outer environment. The
accessory organs include the teeth, tongue, salivary glands, pancreas, and liver.
These organs assist in the digestion of food.
A. Digestive Processes- there are six food
processing activities:
1. Ingestion- brining food into the mouth (eating)
2. Propulsion- moving food through the GI tract,
peristalsis (contractions of smooth muscle in GI
tract) helps to move the food along.
3. Mechanical digestion- physical change of the
food particles from large to small, this helps to
increase the surface area to make chemical
digestion more effective. Actions include
chewing, churning of food in stomach, and
mixing food with digestive juices.
4. Chemical digestion- chemical change of the
food particles, bonds are broken to change a large
molecule into a smaller one so absorption can
happen more effectively. This involves the use of
enzymes, hydrochloric acid, and other digestive
juices.
5. Absorption- transport of digested food
molecules from the GI into the blood and
lymphatic vessels
6. Defecation- elimination of feces (indigestible
substance/digestive waste)
Peristalsis Segmentation
• B. Abdominal Regions and
Quadrants- Review the
regions and quadrants as
presented in Chapter 1.
Digestive organs are located
in the abdominal cavity. Be
familiar with the approximate
location of the intestinal
organs within the nine regions
regions and four quadrants as
)
shown.
• II. Anatomy of the digestive System-
• This section focuses on the gross anatomical and microscopic anatomical
characteristics of the digestive organs.
• A. The peritoneal cavity and peritoneum- The peritoneum is an
extensive serous membrane in the abdominal cavity, the visceral peritoneum
covers the surfaces of digestive organs. A cavity is found in between the
visceral and parietal peritoneum. The parietal peritoneum lines the wall of the
abdominal cavity. The peritoneal cavity is a slit like space filled with serous
fluid. A double layer of serous membranes that hold digestive organs in place
is called the mesentery. Organs surrounded by mesentery and suspended in
the cavity are called intraperitoneal or peritoneal organs. Some are not
surrounded by mesentery; they are called retroperitoneal
• B. Histology of the alimentary Canal Wall- the following are the layers
found in all organs of the gastrointestinal tract. The thickness of each layers
varies with location or organ.
• 1. The Mucosa- inner most layer, closest to the lumen, it is called a mucous
membrane and has three layers- 1) lining epithelium that secretes mucus
and absorbs nutrients, it contains intrinsic glands; 2) a lamina propia that
has loose connective tissue rich in capillaries and lymphoid tissue; 3)a
muscularis mucosa made up of smooth muscle.
• 2. The submucosa- contains connective tissue that helps to reshape the
organs once food passes by, major blood and lymphatic vessels, and some
gland tissue
• 3. The muscularis Externa- two layers of smooth muscle: the circular and
longitudinal layers that help to contract the tube so food passes by
(peristalsis)
• 4. The serosa-outermost layer, actually the visceral peritoneum, organs that
don't have a serosa have a layer of fibrous connective tissue called the
adventitia, such as the esophagus. Some organs have both a serosa and
adventitia.
• 5. Nerve plexuses- the GI tract and accessory organs are innervated by the
autonomic nervous system (sympathetic and parasympathetic). There are
two plexuses: the myenteric nerve plexuses that innervates the smooth
muscle in tunica muscularis externa and controls contraction. The
submucosa nerve plexus innervates the submucosa and controls glandular
secretion.
• C. The mouth and associated Organs- the mouth is primarily used
for mechanical digestion.
• 1. Mouth- also known as the oral cavity, its opening is the oral
orifice, and it is the site of ingestion. The lips are also known as
vestibule and the oral cavity proper is the space inside the mouth
(internal to teeth).
• a. Mouth tissue- the mouth is lined by stratified squamous
epithelium and this is also called a mucous membrane. The mouth
also has layers called internal mucosa, submucosa, and external
layer of muscle and bone instead or a serosa. The tongue, lips,
gums, and palate are lined with cells that are slightly keratinized for
extra protection.
• b. Cheeks- made up primarily by the buccinator muscle, they help to
keep food within oral cavity.
• c. Lips- muscular flaps that have a translucent area called the red
region. This is the area that can become dried or chapped because
there are no lubricating glands. The labial frenulum connects the lips
to the gums.
• 2. Tongue- composed of skeletal muscle, it repositions food during
chewing and shapes it into a bolus. The tongue contains taste buds
and also helps to shape sounds when one is speaking. The tongue
is attached to the floor of the mouth by the lingual frenulum. The
tongue also contains lingual tonsils.
• 3. Salivary glands- compound tubular glands that produce a liquid
containing water, mucus, proteins, a buffer, and enzymes. The purpose
of saliva is to moisten, begin the digestion of starch, neutralize acids,
stimulate growth of beneficial bacteria in the mouth and dissolve food
chemicals so we can taste them (stimulate the chemoreceptors of the
mouth).
• a. Salivary glands include the parotid, submandibular, and
sublingual.
• 4. Teeth- The first set of
teeth humans develop is the
deciduous (20 milk teeth)
and then the permanent
teeth (32 teeth). Teeth are
pecialized structures found
within sockets of the gum
called alveoli and are held in
place by the periodontal
ligament. They form an
immoveable joint. Teeth are
composed of three layers
called enamel (hardest
substance in the body),
dentin (bone like tissue that
is harder than bone), and
the pulp cavity (hollow
centered filled with blood
vessels and nerves). The
teeth can also be divided
into three sections, the
crown, the neck, and the
root. Every tooth has its own
blood and nervous supply
(pulp).
• D. Pharynx- once food leaves the mouth it passes into the pharynx (the cavity
behind the mouth) and moves from the oropharynx into the laryngopharynx. There
it is routed to enter the esophagus by contractions of the pharyngeal constrictor
muscles. Swallowing is avoluntary actions that is controlled by skeletal muscle.
• E. Esophagus- long muscular tube that moves food through peristalsis. The
lumen is typically collapsed.
• 1. Gross anatomy- It extends from the laryngopharyx, through the thorax, exits via
the esophageal hiatus, and meets the stomach at the cardiac orifice. The cardiac
sphincter controls the entering and exiting of substances into/ out of the stomach.
Intestinal crypts contain cells that produce digestive juice in the small
intestine and stem cell replace the epithelium every 3-6 days.
Duodenal glands also secrete a solution that neutralizes stomach
acid.
H. Large intestine- Area where food remains for 12-24 hours. Some absorption and
digestion occurs (by bacteria) it is primarily designed to reabsorb water and electrolytes.
1. Gross anatomy- It is wider than the small intestine but shorter. It is divided into the
cecum (opening of ileum to large intestine, has iliocecal valve), the vermiform appendix
(opens to the cecum, contains lymphoid tissue), the colon (has at least four sections),
the rectum (has rectal valves that prevent feces from being passed along with gas) and
the anal canal (external to abdominal pelvic cavity, has external anal canal). The
sections of the colon and bends are: ascending colon, right colic (hepatic) flexure,
transverse colon, left colic (splenic) flexure, descending colon, and sigmoid colon and
rectum. Some of the feature are: the teniae coli (longitudincal strips that run along the
colon), the haustra (pockets or sacs) and the epiploic appendages (hanging fat filled
pouches)
2. Microscopic anatomy- has
no villi or microvilli, has
intestinal crypts with goblet
cells that provide mucus to
lubricate the feces. Stem cells
are present to fully replace the
epithelium every week. Has
more lymphoid tissue than
other GI tract organs. At the
anal canal the epithelium
changes to stratified squamous
and eventually merges with
true skin surrounding the anus.
Rectum and anal canal Defication Reflex
• I. Liver- considered the largest gland, it performs over 500 functions
that influence several systems beside the digestive system. In
regards to the digestive system it produces bile. A substance that
emulsifies fat and makes it accessible to fat digesting enzymes.
The liver is involved in balancing blood glucose levels, it responds to
hormones, and clears toxins or drugs from the blood and makes
blood proteins.
• Ventral Mesenteries-
1) falciform ligament- connects liver to anterior wall
2) lesser omentum- runs from the liver to the lesser
curvature
• Dorsal Mesenteries-
• 1) Greater omentum- from the greater curvature to the
posterior wall, however it also connect to the
intestines. It also holds a lot of fat
2) Mesentery proper- support and hold the jejunum and ileum.