Introduction To Instrumentation

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What is Instrumentation system?

Instrumentation System

Measuring System Controlling Systems

Measuring Systems : To measure Process Variable such as Pressure, Temperature,

Flow rate and distance.

Controlling Systems : To keep process variable at a desired level (Set Point)

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Importance of Instrumentation in Process
Industries?
"Without measurement there is no control"
• In Process industry, many different materials must be measured with extreme
precision. Each material has its own very specific properties and must be considered
individually.
• In addition, measurements are frequently carried out in extremely harsh ambient
conditions, so specialized process instruments with many different designs (e.g.
pressurized enclosures) are often required for the safety-relevant approvals
• Less manpower cost
• Real time monitoring of process.
• Less reject product due to consistency of automatic processes.
• Line optimization.
• Variation in the process can be easily controlled.
• Maximized profitability.
• Improved Safety and Hazard monitoring. 3
Measuring Systems

G1 G2 G3

G: Transfer operation

G1: Sensing Instrument

G2: Signal Processing Instrument
G3: Output Element

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G1-Sensor : Sensors (Device that can detect physical
variables)

P atm

Flexible Diaphragm

Mercury Sensor T0 P measured

Pressure Sensor
Spring is a weight sensor

Float Level Sensor

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 G2-Signal Processing Element or Instrument

G2,1 - Transducer
G2,2 - Amplifier
G2,3 – Transmitter

• G2,1 – Transducer
• Transducers converts one kind of signal into another one.

Spring is a sensor

G2,1
Body Weight Electrical Signal
DC

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Body weight measured variable
G2,2 – Amplifier
Does not change quality of the signal. It increases signal

∆X
• Mechanical Amplifiers
Large Deviation

∆x

Small Deviation

∆x/∆x = A (Amplification factor)

Bellow is a pressure sensor

P measured

G2,2
∆x ∆x
The Same Quality, but increase quantity
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• Fluid Amplifiers
P measured

P increased
∆L

A: Cross section area

of cylinder
Air Trapped
a: Cross section area
of capillary
∆l

Volume displace from cylinder by pressure is the same with the volume entered in
to the capillary
∆V = A.∆L = a.∆l
Volume displaced by
the cylinder
∆l/∆L = A/a Gain

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• Electronic Amplifiers

Gain 106
Anode
Grid

Input(i)

Weak signal from

measured variable
Large output current (I)
Cathode Vacuum
tube
I
 Gain  106
i

When input signal i=0, Electron from cathode cannot achieve anode.
Therefore circuit is open, No current flow, I out=0

When a Input signal (I≠0) is given, Electron flow from cathode to grid and
from grid to anode. Circuit is closed. I out ≠0
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• G2,3 - Transmitters

Transmitters sends signals from the point of sensor installation to the

instrumentation desk.
Transmit signal for a long distance.

Pneumatic transmission path ~ 100 m

Electrical transmission path ~ 500 m

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• Pneumatic Transmission
(Flapper – Nozzle Mechanism) Flapper
Lever
Nozzle
Pfed1
Pfed Pfed2

P P measured

P measured is a weak signal . This signal is lost on the way. It cannot be

transmitted.

Pfed = 1.4 kg/cm2 Compressed air

Pfed = 1.4 kg/cm2 = Constant (No variations)

Pfed = Pfed1 + Pfed2

Pfed1 = air escape from nozzle

Pfed2 = Transmitted air for instrumentation desk 11
01) P measure is reduced, Bellow goes down, Flapper goes up and nozzle is open.

Pfed1 escapes through the nozzle

Pfed 2= Pfed – Pfed1

02) P measure is increased, Bellow goes up, Flapper goes down and nozzle is closed.

Pfed 1 = 0 No air escaped

Pfed 2 = Pfed = max

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• G-3- Output Element

It allows to read value of measured variable

01. Scales + Pointer + Shaft

Linear Scale Circular Scale

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 Writing Arm

Recorder

02. Scale + Gears

Gear Section

Full Gear

P measured 14
Characterization of
Instruments

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• Instrument is a device that can be used to measure process variables and
control the process

• It is the basis for process control industry.

• Comes in many forms from domestic water heaters and HVAC (Heating,
Ventilation, and Air-Conditioning), where the variable temperature is measured
and used to control gas, oil, or electricity flow to the water heater, or heating
system, or electricity to the compressor for refrigeration, to complex industrial
process control applications such as used in petroleum or chemical industry.

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Accuracy

The accuracy of an instrument or device is the difference between the

indicated value and the actual value. Accuracy is determined by
comparing an indicated reading to that of a known standard.

Accuracy depends on linearity, hysteresis, offset, drift, and sensitivity. The

resulting difference is stated as a ± deviation from the true value.

Accuracy can also be expressed as

(1) absolute value.

(2) percentage of span or Full scale Deflection (FSD)
(3) percentage of reading,

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Range

The range of an instrument specifies the lowest and highest readings it can
measure, i.e., a thermometer whose scale goes from −40°C to 100°C has a
range from −40°C to 100°C.

Span

The span of an instrument is its range from the minimum to maximum scale
value, i.e., a thermometer whose scale goes from −40°C to 100°C has a span of
140°C. When the accuracy is expressed as the percentage of span, it is the
deviation from true expressed as a percentage of the span.

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 Absolute accuracy

The absolute accuracy of an instrument is the deviation from true as a number

not as a percentage

That is, if a voltmeter has an absolute accuracy of ±3 V in the 100-volt range, the
deviation is ±3 V at all the scale readings

e.g., 10 ± 3 V,70 ± 3 V

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Percentage Accuracy :
Accuracy can be specified as a percentage of full-scale reading or deflection (%FSD)

Max Deviation (error )

Accuracy %  x100%
Full scale deflection

Accuracy can be specified as a percentage of Span

Max Deviation (error )

Accuracy %  x100%
Span

T0 reading T0 true value Error

150 0C 155 0C +5 0c

170 0C 180 0C + 10 0C

160 0C 155 0C - 5 0C
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 Range  200 0C  0 0C

0 0C 200 0C
FSD  200 0C

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Accuracy %( FSD)  x100%  5%( FSD)
200 ( F .S .D)

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Example : A pressure gauge ranges from 0 to 50 psi, the worst-case spread in
readings is ±4.35 psi. What is the %FSD accuracy?

%FSD = ± (4.35 psi/50 psi) × 100 = ±8.7%

Reading Accuracy
Reading accuracy is the deviation from true at the point the reading is being taken
and is expressed as a percentage

if a deviation of ±4.35 psi in previous Example was measured at 28.5 psi, the
reading accuracy would be

(4.35/28.5) × 100 =±15.26% of reading.

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Example : In the data sheet of a scale capable of weighing up to 200
lb, the accuracy is given as ±2.5 percent of a reading. What is the

deviation at the 50 and 100 lb readings, and what is the %FSD accuracy?

Deviation at 50 lb = ± (50 × 2.5/100) lb = ±1.25 lb

Deviation at 100 lb = ± (100 × 2.5/100) lb = ±2.5 lb

Maximum deviation occurs at FSD, that is, ±5 lb or ±2.5% FSD

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Sensitivity
Sensitivity is a measure of the change in the output of an instrument for a
change in the measured variable.

Change in Output
Sensitivit y 
Change in Input
T 0C measured Variable V Output

100 0C 5 mv

200 0C 10 mv

T0C Voltage Sensitivit y 

10  5mv  0.05 mv
G 200  1000 C 0
C

It is known as the transfer function, i.e., when the output of a pressure

transducer changes by 3.2 mV for a change in pressure of 1 psi, the sensitivity
is 3.2 mV/psi. High sensitivity in an instrument is preferred as this gives higher
output amplitudes, but this may have to be weighted against linearity, range,
and accuracy. 24
Reproducibility
Reproducibility is the ability of an instrument to repeatedly read the same signal
over time, and give the same output under the same conditions. An instrument
may not be accurate but can have good reproducibility, i.e., an instrument could
read 20 psi as having a range from17.5 to 17.6 psi over 20 readings.

Resolution
Resolution is the smallest amount of a variable that an instrument can
resolve, i.e., the smallest change in a variable to which the instrument will
respond.

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Repeatability
Repeatability is the closeness of the instrument readings when the same input
is applied repeatedly under the same conditions over a short period of time.
Linearity
Linearity is a measure of the proportionality between the actual value of a
variable being measured and the output of the instrument over its
operating range. Following figure shows the pressure input versus voltage
output curve for a pressure to voltage transducer with the best fit linear
straight line.

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Instrument Errors

 Classification of errors
No measuring instrument is entirely free from errors. We can broadly classify
instrument errors into three main groups; gross errors, systematic (bias) errors
and random (precision) errors.
Gross errors- Gross errors are mistakes made, for instance, by the operator in gross
misreading of a scale. These errors can be minimized by care and self-discipline.
Systematic errors- These errors are usually caused by an error in the instrument,
poor calibration, improper technique of the operator or loading of the instrument.
Normally systematic errors are corrected by careful recalibration of the instrument.
Random errors- Random errors occur because of unknown and unpredictable
variations that exist in all measurement situations. This results in slightly different
values obtained for each repeated measurement (scattered evenly about the mean
value) of the same input. The influence of random errors on the integrity of
measurements can be reduced with statistical methods and refined experimental
techniques.
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 Typical instrument errors

Drift
Drift is the change in the reading of an instrument of a fixed variable with
time.
An error because of drift is an example of a systematic error.

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Non linearity
Non-linearity is the maximum deviation from a straight line connecting the zero and full-
scale calibration points.

A straight line connecting the minimum and maximum input output operating points,
would represent perfect linear operation of the instrument. The actual static calibration
of the instrument will normally deviate from this line.

Non-linearity is then expressed as a percentage of the maximum output value.

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Hysteresis

Hysteresis is the difference in readings obtained when an instrument

approaches a signal from opposite directions, i.e., if an instrument reads a
midscale value going from zero it can give a different reading from the value
after making a full-scale reading. This is due to stresses induced into the
material of the instrument by changing its shape in going from zero to full-
scale deflection.

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 Offset (Zero error)
Offset is the reading of an instrument with zero input
No Load No Load No Load

0.5%
0 0 0

-0.5%

Zero is below – 0.5% Zero is above 0.5% Zero is correct

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Questions

1. What is the sensitivity of an instrument whose output change

is 17.5 mV for an input change of 7°C?

2. A temperature sensor has a range of 0 to 120°C and an

absolute accuracy of ±3°C.What is its FSD percent accuracy?

3. A flow sensor has a range of 0 to 25 m/s and a FSD accuracy of

±4.5 percent. What is the absolute accuracy?

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4. A temperature instrument has a range −20°F to 500°F. What is
the error at 220°F? Assume the accuracy is (a) ±7 percent of FSD
and (b) ±7 percent of span.

5. A spring balance has a span of 10 to 120 kg and the absolute

accuracy is ±3 kg. What is its %FSD accuracy and span accuracy?

6. A flow instrument has an accuracy of (a) ±0.5 percent of

reading and (b) 0.5%FSD.If the range of the instrument is 10 to
100 fps, what is the absolute accuracy at 45 fps?

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7. A displacement sensor has an input range of 0.0 to 3.0 cm. Using the
calibration results given in the table, calculate:
a) the input and output span.
b) the maximum non-linearity as a percentage of f.s.d. (full scale
deflection).
c) the sensitivity of the instrument at an input of 1.0 cm.

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