Chapter Five: Pharyngeal-

Oral Function & Speech

Production
SLP 3150
MADDIE BECK, B.S.
Hixon, T. J., Weismer, G., & Hoit, J. D.
(2020). Preclinical speech science: Anatomy,
physiology, acoustics, and perception. San
Diego, CA: Plural Publishing.
Attendance/Check-in
Overview

• Pharyngeal-oral + velopharyngeal-nasal apparatuses form the upper

airway
• Pharyngeal-oral apparatus is…
• Flexible
• Tube shape
• Extends from the larynx to the lips
Skeletal Framework

Cranial bones

• Temporal (two)
• Parietal (two)
• Occipital (one)
• Frontal (one)
• Sphenoid (one)
• Ethmoid (one)
Skeletal Framework

Facial bones
• Maxillary (two)
• Palatine (two)
• Vomer (one)
• Inferior nasal conchae (two)
• Lacrimal (two)
• Nasal (two)
• Zygomatic (two)
• Mandible (one)
Maxilla

• Forms upper jaw and

most of the hard
palate
• Lends strength to the
oral cavity
Maxillary Teeth

• 16 permanent teeth
• Infants and young
children only have 10
teeth, called deciduous
teeth (aka baby teeth or
milk teeth)
Mandible

• Aka “lower jaw”

• Right and left halves join at the
front through a fibrous
symphysis (line of union) that
ossifies (turns to bone) during
the first year of life
• 16 permanent teeth
Temporomandibular Joints

• Formed where the

mandible articulates with
the left and right temporal
bones along the sides of
the skull
• Joint is surrounded by
fibrous capsule and
lubricated with synovial
fluid
Temporomandibular Ligaments
Temporomandibular Joint Movements
Internal Topography

• Pharyngeal cavity
• Oral cavity
• Buccal cavity
• Mucous lining
Pharyngeal Cavity

• The pharynx is a tube that can be changed in shape and size by

pharyngeal muscles and by surrounding structures
• Focus here is on the oropharynx and laryngopharynx
Oral Cavity

• Oral cavity extends from lips to the

anterior faucial pillars
• Oral vestibule is the front part of oral
cavity and includes the lips, cheeks,
front teeth, and anterior segments of
the alveolar processes of the maxilla
and mandible
Oral Cavity: Tongue

Tip: Part closest to the front teeth at rest

Blade: Part just posterior to the tip and inferior
to the alveolar ridge of the maxilla
Dorsum: Part posterior to the blade and below
the back part of the hard palate
Root: Part that faces the back of the pharynx and
front of the epiglottis
Body: Central mass of the tongue that underlies
the surface features
Buccal Cavity

• Lies to the sides of the oral cavity

• Constitutes the space between the gums and teeth (gingivae) internally
and the lips and cheeks (buccae) externally
Mucous Lining

• Mucous lining covers the inner surface of the pharyngeal-oral

apparatus
• Consists of an outer layer of epithelium and inner layer of connective
tissue (lamina propria)
• Masticatory mucosa (with collagen subflooring) covers the gums and
hard palate
• A specialized mucosa covers the tongue that contains small pockets
that house taste buds
Forces of the Pharyngeal-Oral Apparatus

• Passive (always present but subject to change)

- Recoil of structures
- Surface tension between structures in apposition
- Gravity
- Aeromechanical forces
• Active (comes from contraction of muscles)
- Pharyngeal muscles (laryngopharynx / oropharynx)
- Mandibular muscles
- Tongue muscles
- Lip muscles
Muscles of the Pharynx
(Laryngopharynx and Oropharynx)
• Inferior constrictor
• Middle constrictor
• Stylopharyngeus
Muscles of the Pharynx

Inferior Constrictor

• Originates from the sides of the

thyroid and cricoid cartilages
• Inserts into the median raphe of
the posterior pharyngeal wall

• Has two parts:

thyropharyngeus (upper)
cricopharyngeus (lower)
Muscles of the Pharynx
Middle Constrictor

• Originates from greater and

lesser horns of hyoid bone and
stylohyoid ligament
• Inserts into the median raphe of
the posterior pharyngeal wall

• Sometimes considered to have

two parts:
chondropharyngeus
ceratopharyngeus
Muscles of the Pharynx

Constrictors

• Pull pharyngeal walls inward

and forward to constrict the
pharyngeal tube
Muscles of the Pharynx
Stylopharyngeus

• Originates from the styloid

process of the temporal bone
• Inserts in the lateral pharyngeal
wall near the juncture of the
superior and middle constrictor
muscles and into the thyroid
cartilage

• Pulls up on the pharynx and pulls

the lateral walls outward (widens
the pharynx)
Muscles of the Mandible
• Masseter
• Temporalis
• Internal pterygoid
• External pterygoid
• Digastric (anterior belly)
• Mylohyoid
• Geniohyoid
Muscles of the Mandible
Masseter

• Outer layer (bulk of muscle)

originates from an aponeurosis
along the front part of the zygomatic
arch
• Inserts on the angle and outer
surface of the ramus of the mandible
• Inner layer originates from entire
length of zygomatic arch
• Inserts into the outer surface of the
upper half of the ramus and its
coronoid process
Muscles of the Mandible

Masseter

• Contraction of outer layer pulls

upward on the mandible

• Contraction of inner layer pulls

upward and backward on the
mandible
Muscles of the Mandible
Temporalis

• Originates from the inferior

temporal line of the parietal bone
and greater wing of the sphenoid
bone
• Inserts on the inner surface and
front border of the coronoid
process and front surface of the
ramus of the mandible

• Contraction pulls upward and

backward on the mandible
Muscles of the Mandible
Internal pterygoid

• Originates from the lateral pterygoid

plate and perpendicular plate of the
palatine bone
• Inserts on the inner surface of the
angle and ramus of the mandible

• Contraction pulls upward on the

mandible

• Forms a muscular sling with the

masseter around the angle of the
mandible
Muscles of the Mandible

External pterygoid

• Originates from the greater wing

of the sphenoid bone and from
the lateral pterygoid plate
• Inserts into the neck of the
condyle of the mandible

• Contraction pulls the mandible

downward and forward
Muscles of the Mandible

Digastric (anterior belly)

• Originates from the inside the lower

border of the mandible
• Inserts into a tendon

• Contraction pulls downward on the

mandible (with the hyoid bone
relatively fixed)
Muscles of the Mandible

Mylohyoid

• Originates along the inner surface

of the body of the mandible
• Inserts into a tendinous midline
raphe or the front surface of the
hyoid bone

• Contraction pulls down on the

mandible (with the hyoid bone
relatively fixed)
Muscles of the Mandible

Geniohyoid

• Originates from the inner surface

of the front of the mandible to the
front surface of the body of the
hyoid bone (runs essentially
parallel to the anterior belly of the
digastic)

• Contraction pulls down on the

mandible (with the hyoid bone
relatively fixed)
Muscles of the Mandible
 Muscles of the Tongue
Intrinsic Extrinsic

• Superior longitudinal • Styloglossus

• Inferior longitudinal • Palatoglossus
• Transverse • Hyoglossus
• Vertical • Genioglossus
Intrinsic Muscles of the Tongue
Superior longitudinal

• Originates from the hyoid bone

within the root of the tongue
• Inserts into the front edges of the
tongue and the upper surface of the
tongue tip

• Contraction can shorten the tongue,

pull the tip upward, and pull the
lateral margins upward
Intrinsic Muscles of the Tongue

Inferior longitudinal

• Originates from the hyoid bone at

the root of the tongue
• Inserts near the lower surface of the
tongue tip

• Contraction shortens the tongue and

pulls the tip downward
Intrinsic Muscles of the Tongue

Vertical

• Originates from just beneath the

dorsum of the tongue
• Inserts near the sides of the lower
surface of the tongue

• Contraction flattens the tongue

Intrinsic Muscles of the Tongue

Transverse

• Originates from the median

fibrous skeleton of the tongue
• Inserts in the fibrous tissue along
the side of the tongue

• Contraction narrows and

elongates the tongue
Extrinsic Muscles of the Tongue
Styloglossus

• Originates from the side of the

styloid process of the temporal bone
and the stylomandibular ligament
• Inserts into the sides of the root of
the tongue and from there fibers run
in various directions
• Contraction can draw the tongue
body upward and backward, pull
the side of the tongue upward,
shorten the tongue, and/or pull the
tongue tip toward the side
Extrinsic Muscles of the Tongue

Palatoglossus (Glossopalatine)

• Originates from lower surface of

the palatal aponeurosis
• Inserts into the side of the root of
the tongue

• Contraction pulls upward,

backward, and inward on the root
of the tongue
Extrinsic Muscles of the Tongue

Hyoglossus

• Originates from the upper border of

the body and greater cornua of the
hyoid bone
• Inserts into the side of the tongue
near the back

• Contraction lowers the tongue body

and draws it backward
Extrinsic Muscles of the Tongue
Genioglossus

• Originates from the inner surface

of the body of the mandible near
the midline
• The lower fibers insert into the
root of the tongue, the middle
fibers insert into the tongue near
the junction of the dorsum and
blade, and the upper fibers insert
into the tip of the tongue
Extrinsic Muscles of the Tongue

Genioglossus

• Contraction can move the tongue

root forward and force the tongue
tip forward, pull the front of the
tongue backward, and/or pull the
center of the tongue downward to
form a depression along its
length.
Muscles of the Tongue
 Muscles of the Lips

• Orbicularis oris • Depressor labii inferioris

• Buccinator • Mentalis
• Risorius • Levator anguli oris
• Levator labii superioris • Depressor anguli oris
• Levator labii superioris • Incisivus labii superioris
aleque nasi • Incisivus labii inferioris
• Zygomatic major • Platysma
• Zygomatic minor
Muscles of the Lips
Muscles of the Lips
Orbicularis oris

• The only muscle of the lips that

contains intrinsic fibers

• Forms a ring of muscle within the

upper and lower lips

• Contraction can move the lips

toward each other and forward (to
closure), move the corners of the
mouth in several directions, and
force the lips and/or corners of the
mouth against the teeth
 Extrinsic Muscles of the Lips

A cervical muscle (platysma) can also move the lower lip

 Muscles of the Lips
Buccinator

• Originates from the pterygomandibular

ligament, the outer surface of the
alveolar process of the maxilla, and the
mandible near the last molars
• Inserts into the upper and lower lips
near corner of mouth

• Contraction can pull the mouth corner

backward and toward the side and can
force the lip and cheek against the teeth

Transverse lip muscle

 Muscles of the Lips

Risorius

• Originates from fascia of the

masseter muscle
• Inserts into the corner of the mouth
and lower lip

• Contraction draws the corner of the

mouth backward and toward the side

Transverse lip muscle

 Muscles of the Lips

Levator labii superioris

• Originates from below the orbit

of the eye, the front of the
maxillary bone, and the
zygomatic bone
• Inserts into the upper lip

• Contraction elevates the upper

lip
Angular lip muscle
 Muscles of the Lips
Levator labii superioris
alaeque nasi

• Originates from the front of the

maxilla and the lip segment inserts
in the upper lip

• Contraction of the lip segment

elevates the upper lip (recall that the
nasal segment dilates the anterior
Angular lip muscle naris)
 Muscles of the Lips

Zygomatic major

• Originates from the side of the

zygomatic bone
• Inserts into the corner of the mouth

• Contraction pulls backward on the

corner of the mouth and lifts it
upward and toward the side
Angular lip muscle
 Muscles of the Lips

Zygomatic minor

• Originates from the inner surface

of the zygomatic bone
• Inserts into the upper lip

• Contraction elevates the upper lip

and pulls the corner of the mouth
upward
Angular lip muscle
 Muscles of the Lips
Depressor labii inferioris

• Originates from the front surface of

the mandible
• Inserts into the lower lip from near
the midline to the corner of the
mouth

• Contraction pulls the lower lip

downward and toward the side and
may also cause the lower lip to turn
outward
Angular lip muscle
 Muscles of the Lips
Mentalis
• Originates from the front and side
of the mandible near the midline
• Inserts into the orbicularis oris
muscle and skin overlying the
chin
• Contraction pulls chin tissue
upward, forces lower part of
lower lip against the alveolar
process of the mandible, and curls
the lower lip outward
Vertical lip muscle
• Called the "pouting muscle"
 Muscles of the Lips

Levator anguli oris (or caninus)

• Originates from the front of the

maxilla
• Inserts on both the upper and lower
lips near the corner of the mouth

• Contraction draws the corner of the

mouth upward and toward the side
and may raise the lower lip against
Vertical lip muscle
the upper lip
 Muscles of the Lips
Depressor anguli oris
(or triangularis)

• Originates from the outer surface

of the mandible
• Inserts on the orbicularis oris
muscle at the corner of the mouth
and into the upper lip

• Contraction pulls the corner of the

Vertical lip muscle
mouth downward and draws the
upper lip downward toward the
lower lip
 Muscles of the Lips

Incisivus labii superioris

• Originates from the maxilla near

the canine tooth
• Inserts into the corner of the mouth

• Contraction pulls the corner of the

mouth upward and toward the
midline

Parallel lip muscle

 Muscles of the Lips

Incisivus labii inferioris

• Originates from the mandible

near the lateral incisor tooth
• Inserts in the corner of the mouth

• Contraction pulls downward and

inward on the corner of the mouth

Parallel lip muscle

 Muscles of the Lips

Platysma

• Originates from a sheet of

connective tissue within the neck
above the clavicle (and may
extend from farther below)
• Inserts on the lower edge of the
mandible and some fibers blend
with muscles of the lower lip and
corner of the mouth
Cervical lip muscle
Muscles of the Lips
Movements of the Pharynx
• Lengthening/shortening by vertical
movements of larynx
• Inward/outward movements of lateral
pharyngeal walls
• Forward/backward movements of posterior
pharyngeal walls
• Forward/backward movements of velum,
tongue, and epiglottis
 Movements of the Pharynx
• Inward movements of the sides of the pharyngeal walls (in the
oropharynx and laryngopharynx) are primarily accomplished with the
inferior and middle constrictor muscles and outward movements by the
stylopharyngeus muscles

• Vertical (lengthening/shortening) and front-back changes in dimensions

accomplished by neighboring structures (see previous slide)
 Movements of the
Mandible
• The mandible can move upward and downward, forward and backward,
and side to side as allowed by the temporomandibular joints and their
ligaments
• All three types of movements occur during chewing
• Can change position, but not shape
 Movements of the
Mandible
• Lowered by the external pterygoid, digastric (anterior belly),
mylohyoid, and geniohyoid
• Elevated by masseter, temporalis, and internal pterygoid
• Moved side-to-side by the masseter, temporalis, internal pterygoid, and
external pterygoid
• Moved forward by external pterygoid
• Moved backward by masseter and temporalis
 Movements of the Tongue
• Rides with the mandible
• Can change its position en masse as a body within the oral cavity
• Can change shape markedly and relatively independently of the position
of the mandible or its en masse position within the oral cavity
• Different parts of the tongue can move in different ways
Adjustments of the Tongue
• The tongue can be thought of as a muscular
hydrostat
• A structure that comprises primarily
muscle, has no bony skeletal
support, is incompressible, and can
change shape
• Inward displacement of one part of the
tongue causes outward displacement in
another part (like a water-filled balloon).
Tongue Movement Video
 Movements of the Lips
• Lips can move up and down, side to side, and front to back
• Each lip can move independently or the two lips can be coordinated in
their movements
• The lower lip rides on the mandible, whereas the upper lip is fixed to
the stationary maxilla
• A wide range of lips movements are possible
 Movements of the Lips

Activities of the many lip muscles can change the:

(a) position and shape of each lip
(b) position and shape of the corners of the mouth
(c) compression between the lips or between the lips and the teeth and
gums
(d) configuration (cross section and length) of the channel that forms
the airway opening
Pharyngeal-Oral Control Variables

• Pharyngeal-oral lumen size and configuration

• Pharyngeal-oral contact pressure

• Pharyngeal-oral airway resistance

• Pharyngeal-oral acoustic impedance

Pharyngeal-Oral
Lumen Size &
Configuration
Pharyngeal-Oral Lumen Size & Configuration

• Lumen (its inner open space) can be changed in both size and
configuration
• Can be increased or decreased from resting position

**Mandible and maxilla are separated by only a small distance when

you produce speech
 Pharyngeal-Oral
Contact Pressure
• Adjustments of the apparatus can result in
full obstruction of the pharyngeal oral
lumen at different locations
• Tongue against the pharynx, velum, hard palate,
teeth, and lips
• Lips against the teeth and one another

• Muscular pressure is the most important

contributor to pharyngeal-oral contact
pressure (others are surface tension and
gravity)
Pharyngeal-Oral Airway Resistance

• Calculated measure of the

opposition provided by the
pharyngeal-oral apparatus to mass
airflow through it
• The greatest contributor to
pharyngeal-oral airway resistance
is change in the cross-section of the
airway
Pharyngeal-Oral
Acoustic
Impedance
• Opposition to the
movement of energy in the
form of sound waves
through the apparatus
• Main contributors to
acoustic impedance are
changes in the cross-section
of the pharyngeal-oral
airway
 Neural Substrates
• Pharyngeal-oral movements
are controlled by the nervous
system and differ with the
activity being performed
• Speaking and swallowing
engage the same structures
int the pharyngeal-oral
apparatus but are controlled
by different neural substrates
and mechanisms
Pharyngeal-Oral Functions

• Degree of coupling between the oral airway and atmosphere

• Chewing

• Swallowing

• Sound generation (creation of an acoustic source) and filtering

(shaping of the sound source)
Sound Generation

• Two that are most important in the pharyngeal-oral apparatus:

• Transient (popping) sounds – oral airstream is interrupted and then released
• Turbulence (hissing) sounds – air is forced through a narrow constriction
within the airway
Source-Filter Theory

• Accounts for the generation of speech sounds by positing that a source

of sound (vocal fold vibrations, fricative noise, or both together) is
filtered through the air spaces in the vocal tract
Speech Production

• Pharyngeal-oral apparatus is often referred to as the articulatory part

of the speech mechanism
• Articulatory descriptions are described in two broad categories
• Sonorants – sounds produced with a relatively open pharyngeal-oral airway
(vocal tract) or nasal airway (nasal tract)
• Obstruents – sounds produced with a constriction or obstruction
Vowel Description

A degree of constriction
refers to a small cross-
sectional area of the airway
Diphthong Description

• Diphthongs are formed by vowel pairs in which the first vowel has a
lesser degree of major constriction than the second
• Diphthongs combine vowel pairs that transition within the same place
of major constriction, from back to front places of constriction, and
from mid to high degrees of constriction that include increases in lip
rounding
• Diphthongs do not comprise "pure" vowel pairs
Consonant Description

• Obstruents are in orange

• Sonorants are in blue
Speech Production Stream: Articulatory Processes

• Speech production involves continuous movements of articulators

• There is a poor correspondence between these continuous articulatory
movements and the phonetic code
• One reason relates to coarticulation
Coarticulation

• Articulatory movements of one sound influence those of another

sound and this influence can extend across several sounds
• Two types of coarticulation:
• Forward (or left-to-right or anticipatory) = when articulatory characteristics
of an upcoming sound influence a currently produced sound
Ex: Lip rounding during the production of /t/ in “two”
• Backward (or right-to-left or carryover) = when a currently articulated sound
is influenced by the characteristics of a previous sound
Ex: Lip rounding during the production of /s/ in ”caboose”
Coarticulation

"sue" "toots"
 Traditional Theory of Coarticulation
(Feature Spreading)
• Articulatory sequences consist of a bundle of features

• For any given sound, a particular features is

necessarily included (+), explicitly not included (-), or
unspecified (blank)

• An unspecified feature is allowed to migrate from one

sound to another (e.g., lip rounding during the /s/ in
the word "sue" or "stew")
 Traditional Theory of Coarticulation
(Feature Spreading)

Features are specified (+), absent (-), or not specified (blank).

 Traditional Theory of Coarticulation
(Feature Spreading)

• Anticipatory coarticulation is seen as evidence of

motor planning (e.g., nasalization of the vowel in the
word "tan")

• Carryover coarticulation is seen as the consequence

of mechanical inertia of the physical speech apparatus
(e.g., nasalization of the vowel in the word "gnat")
Traditional Theory of Coarticulation
(Feature Spreading)
Articulatory Phonology or Gesture Theory
• Critics believed that Traditional Theory was too
"digital" and that speech production is more "analog"
with its smooth and continuous movements

• Proponents of Articulatory Phonology/Gesture Theory

focus on speech movements (gestures) as they unfold
over time

• The term "coproduction" is used to refer to overlapping

articulatory events
Articulatory Phonology or Gesture Theory
 Variables that Influence
Pharyngeal-Oral Function
Development
Anatomical changes include:

• Mandible and lips grow and changes in

shape

• Teeth are added

• Pharynx lengthens (and larynx

descends)

• Tongue descends (fills less of the oral

cavity)

(and many others)

 Development

• Speech motor control develops nonlinearly with

incremental increases in skill acquisition

• Speaking rate increases during development

• Articulatory movement variability during speaking

decreases with development
 Aging
• Pharynx lengthens (as larynx continues to descend) and
widens

• Oral cavity size increases

• Tissues become thinner, drier, and decrease in elasticity

• There is loss of bone and teeth

• Sensory innervation decreases

• Movements become slower

 Aging

• Speaking rate becomes slower

• Variability in articulatory movements during

speaking increases
 Sex

• Men have larger pharyngeal-oral structures than

women

• The pharynx is relatively longer in men than women

• Men are stronger than women

• Men speak faster than women

Questions???