PERFORMANCE OF IC ENGINES

The performance of the engine depends on inter-relationship between power developed, speed and the specific fuel
consumption at each operating condition within the useful range of speed and load.

The following factors are to be considered in evaluating the performance of an engine:

(i) Maximum power or torque available at each speed within the useful range of speed.
(ii) The range of power output at constant speed for stable operation of the engine. The different speeds should be selected at
equal intervals within the useful speed range.
(iii) Brake specific fuel consumption at each operating condition within the useful range of operation.
(iv) Reliability and durability of the engine for the given range of operation.

Engine performance characteristics can be determined by the following two methods.

(i) By using experimental results obtained from engine tests.
(ii) By analytical calculation based on theoretical data.

Some of the important parameters are speed, inlet pressure and temperature, output, air-fuel ratio etc. The performance of an
engine is judged from the point of view of the two main factors, viz., engine power and engine efficiency.
ENGINE POWER:

The energy flow through the engine is expressed in three distinct terms. They are indicated power, ip, friction power f p and
brake power, bp. Indicated power can be computed from the measurement of forces in the cylinder and brake power may be
computed from the measurement of forces at the crankshaft of the engine. The friction power can be estimated by motoring
the engine

Indicated Mean Effective Pressure (pim):

It can be computed from the measurement of forces developed in the cylinder, viz., the pressure of the expanding gases. the
pressure in the cylinder varies throughout the cycle and the variation can be expressed with respect to volume or crank angle
to obtain p-V or p-θ diagrams respectively
 Fig. p-V diagram for an ideal
four-stroke cycle engine

As the piston moves back and forth between T DC and BDC (Fig), the process lines on the p-V diagram indicate the
successive states of the working fluid through the cycle. The indicated net work of the cycle is represented by the area
1234 enclosed by the process lines for that cycle. If the area of rectangle ABCD equals area 1234, the vertical distance
between the horizontal lines AB and CD represents the indicated mean effective pressure, imep. It is a mean value
expressed in N/m2, which, when multiplied by the displacement volume, Vs, gives the same indicated net work as is
actually produced with the varying pressures.
Indicated Power (ip):
Power is defined as the rate of doing work. In the analysis of cycles the net work is expressed in kJ/kg of air. This may be
converted to power by multiplying by the mass flow rate of air through the engine in kg per unit time.

where ma is in kg/s, network is in kJ/kg of air and ip is in kW.

In working with actual engines, it is often desirable to compute ip from a given p im and given engine operating conditions.

By definition,
Indicated power = Indicated net work × cycles/s

Where,
ip = indicated power (kW)
pim = indicated mean effective pressure (N/m2)
L = length of the stroke (m)
A = area of the piston (m2)
N = speed in revolutions per minute
n = number of power strokes per minute N/2 for a four-stroke engine N for a two-stroke engine
K = number of cylinders
Brake Power (bp):

The bp is usually measured by attaching a power absorption device to the drive-shaft of the engine. Such a device sets up
measurable forces counteracting the forces delivered by the engine, and the determined value of these measured forces is
indicative of the forces being delivered. By using the geometry of a simple prony brake as the basis, a formula can now be
developed for computing the bp delivered by an engine. Work has been defined as the product of a force and the distance
through which the point of application of force moves. Then the drive-shaft of the engine turns through one revolution, any
point on the periphery of the rigidly attached wheel moves through a distance equal to 2πr (Fig.16.2). During this
movement, a friction force, f is acting against the wheel. The force, f is thus acting through the distance 2πr, and producing
work.

Fig. Adaptation of prony brake

for power measurement
Thus, Work during one revolution = Distance × Force
= (2πr) × f

The torque, rf, produced by the drive-shaft is opposed by a turning moment equal to the product of the length of the
moment arm R and the force F measured by the scale
T = rf = RF

Work during one revolution = 2πRF

Power = Work /Time = 2πRF (N /60 )
where N = revolutions per minute of the drive-shaft. Therefore,

bp = (2πRFN)/ (60 × 1000) kW.

It should be noted that N is the rpm of the engine. The friction force is acting during every revolution of the crankshaft,
regardless of whether or not that revolution contains a power stroke.

The product of the moment arm R and the measured force, F is termed the torque of the engine and is usually expressed in
Nm.

The brake power, bp, can also be written as

bp = (2πNT)/ 60000 kW.
Brake Mean Effective Pressure (pbm):

Indicated mean effective pressure may be considered to consist of fmep and bmep, two hypothetical pressures. Friction mean
effective pressure is that portion of imep which is required to overcome friction losses, and brake mean effective pressure is
the portion which produces the useful power delivered by the engine.

imep = bmep + fmep

Since bmep is that portion of imep which goes into the development of useful power, it has the same relationship to bp as
imep has to ip, or

bmep/imep = bp/ip.

As a means of computing ip when imep is determined from an engine indicator diagram

ip = (pimLAnK)/60000.

For a given engine, L, A, n and K are constants. Since bp and bmep have the same relationship to one another as do ip and
imep, bp can be expressed as

bp = (pbmLAnK)/60000

where pbm is brake mean effective pressure (N/m2).

 And due to the same relationship, the mechanical efficiency, η m of the engine can be expressed as the ratio of bmep to
imep.

ηm = bp/ip = bmep/imep

Brake mean effective pressure is very useful in comparing engines or in establishing engine operating limits

ENGINE EFFICIENCIES:

Apart from expressing engine performance in terms of power, it is also essential to express in terms of efficiencies.

Air-Standard Efficiency:

The air-standard efficiency is also known as thermodynamic efficiency. It is mainly a function of compression ratio and other
parameters. It gives the upper limit of the efficiency obtainable from an engine.

Indicated and Brake Thermal Efficiencies:

The indicated and brake thermal efficiencies are based on the ip and bp of the engine respectively. These efficiencies give an
idea of the output generated by the engine with respect to heat supplied in the form of fuel.
Mechanical Efficiency:

Mechanical efficiency takes into account the mechanical losses in an engine. Mechanical losses of an engine may be further
subdivided into the following groups:

(i)Friction losses as in case of pistons, bearings, gears, valve mechanisms. With the development in bearing design and
materials, improvements in gears etc., these losses are usually limited from 7 to 9 per cent of the indicated output.

(ii)Power is absorbed by engine auxiliaries such as fuel pump, lubricating oil pump, water circulating pump, radiator,
magneto and distributor, electric generator for battery charging, radiator fan etc. These losses may account for 3 to 8 per
cent of the indicated output.

(iii)Ventilating action of the flywheel. This loss is usually below 4 per cent of the indicated output.

(iv)Work of charging the cylinder with fresh charge and discharging the exhaust gases during the exhaust stroke. In case of
two-stroke engines the power absorbed by the scavenging pump etc. These losses may account for 2 to 6 per cent of the
indicated output. In general, mechanical efficiency of engines varies from 65 to 85%.
Relative Efficiency:

 The relative efficiency or efficiency ratio as it is sometimes called is the ratio of the actual efficiency obtained from an
engine to the theoretical efficiency of the engine cycle. Hence, Relative efficiency = Actual brake thermal efficiency Air-
standard efficiency Relative efficiency for most of the engines varies from 75 to 95% with theoretical air and decreases
rapidly with insufficient air to about 75% with 90% air.

Volumetric Efficiency:

 Volumetric efficiency is a measure of the success with which the air supply, and thus the charge, is inducted into the
engine. It is a very important parameter, since it indicates the breathing capacity of the engine.

 Volumetric efficiency is defined as the ratio of the actual mass of air drawn into the engine during a given period of time
to the theoretical mass which should have been drawn in during that same period of time, based upon the total piston
displacement of the engine, and the temperature and pressure of the surrounding atmosphere.
where n is the number of intake strokes per minute. For a four-stroke engine n = N/2 and for a two-stroke engine n = N, where
N is the speed of the engine in rev/min.

 The actual mass is a measured quantity. The theoretical mass is computed from the geometry of the cylinder, the number of
cylinders, and the speed of the engine, in conjunction with the density of the surrounding atmosphere.

Scavenging Efficiency:

 In case of two-stroke engines (discussed in detail in the next chapter) scavenging efficiency is defined as the ratio of the
amount of air or gas-air mixture, which remains in the cylinder, at the actual beginning of the compression to the product of
the total volume and air density of the inlet.

 Scavenging efficiency for most of the two-stroke engines varies from 40 to 95 per cent depending upon the type of
scavenging provided.
Charge Efficiency:

The charge efficiency shows how well the piston displacement of a four-stroke engine is utilized. Various factors affecting
charge efficiency are:
(i) the compression ratio.
(ii) the amount of heat picked up during passage of the charge through intake manifold.
(iii) the valve timing of the engine.
(iv) the resistance offered to air-fuel charge during its passage through induction manifold.

Combustion Efficiency:

Combustion efficiency is the ratio of heat liberated to the theoretical heat in the fuel. The amount of heat liberated is less
than the theoretical value because of incomplete combustion either due to dissociation or due to lack of available oxygen.
Combustion efficiency in a well adjusted engine varies from 92% to 97%.
ENGINE PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS:

Engine performance characteristics are a convenient graphical presentation of an engine performance. They are constructed
from the data obtained during actual test runs of the engine and are particularly useful in comparing the performance of one
engine with that of another.

It is to be noted that there is a certain speed, within the speed range of a particular engine, at which the charge inducted per
cylinder per cycle will be the maximum. At this point, the maximum force can therefore be exerted on the piston. For all
practical purposes, the torque, or engine capacity to do work will also be maximum at this point. Thus, there is a particular
engine speed at which the charge per cylinder per cycle is a maximum, and at approximately this same speed, the torque of the
engine will be a maximum.
 Fig. Typical performance plot with respect to speed

The relationship between air charge per cylinder per cycle and torque, as well as air consumption and ip is illustrated in Fig.
Note that the maximum torque occurs at a lower speed than the maximum ip
 Fig. shows some of the other important performance characteristics for a typical
SI engine. In this figure, torque, ip, bp and fp are plotted against engine speed
throughout the operating range of the engine, at full throttle and variable load.

 The difference between the ip produced in the cylinder, and the bp realized at the
drive-shaft, is the fp. At low engine speeds, the fp is relatively low, and bp is
close to ip.

 As engine speed increases, the fp increases at a greater rate. At engine speeds

above the usual operating range, fp increases very rapidly.

 Also, at these higher speeds, ip will reach a maximum and then fall off. At some
point, ip and fp will be equal, and bp will then drop to zero.
Fig. Typical SI engine
 The torque reaches a maximum at approximately 60% of the rated rpm of the performance curves
engine, while the ip has not reached maximum even at the rated speed
 Fig. shows fuel consumption and bsfc plotted against the engine speed,
for the same engine operating under the same conditions. The quantity
of fuel consumed increases with engine speed. The bsfc, on the other
hand, drops as the speed is increased in the low speed range, nearly
levels off at medium speeds, and increases in the high speed range.

 At low speeds, the heat loss to the combustion chamber walls is

proportionately greater and combustion efficiency is poorer, resulting in
higher fuel consumption for the power produced. At the high speeds,
the fp is increasing at a rapid rate, resulting in a slower increase in bp
than in fuel consumption, with a consequent increase in bsfc. Fig. Typical fuel consumption curves
for an SI engine
 Fig. illustrates the general shape of the curve for any given
rpm. The reason for the rapid increase in bsfc with the
reduction in throttle opening is that the f p remains
essentially constant, while the ip is being reduced. The bp
drops more rapidly than fuel consumption, and thereby the
bsfc rises.

Fig. bsfc curve at constant speed and

variable load
 Performance curves can be constructed for other operating factors such as
imep, bmep, air consumption etc. However, the curves presented are typical,
and are among the more important.

 Probably the most important of these are the curves of torque, bp and bsfc
plotted against engine speed at full throttle operation. These curves are the
ones most generally published by engine manufacturers with the descriptive
literature on their engine models. Such a plot would look similar to Fig.
Fig. Variation of bsfc, torque and bp
with respect to speed for an SI engine
VARIABLES AFFECTING PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS:

Combustion Rate and Spark Timing:

 The spark should be timed and the combustion rate controlled such that the maximum pressure occurs as close to the
beginning of the power stroke as possible, consistent with a smooth running engine.

 As a general rule, the spark timing and combustion rate are regulated in such a way that approximately one half of the total
pressure rise due to combustion has occurred as the piston reaches T DC on the compression stroke.

Air-Fuel Ratio:

 This ratio must be set to fulfill engine requirements. Consistent with these requirements, however, it is usually set as close
as possible to the best economy proportions during normal cruising speeds, and as close as possible to the best power
proportions when maximum performance is required.
Compression Ratio:

 An increase in compression ratio increases the thermal efficiency, and is, therefore, generally advantageous. The
compression ratio in most SI engines is limited by knock, and the use of economically feasible antiknock quality fuels.

 Increasing compression ratio also increases the friction of the engine, particularly between piston rings and the cylinder
walls, and there is a point at which further increase in compression ratio would not be profitable, though this point appears
to be rather high.

Engine Speed:

 At low speeds, a greater length of time is available for heat transfer to the cylinder walls and therefore a greater proportion
of heat loss occurs. Up to a certain point, higher speeds produce greater air consumption and therefore greater ip.

 Higher speeds, however, are accompanied by rapidly increasing fp and by greater inertia in the moving parts.
Consequently, the engine speed range must be a compromise, although most present day designs appear to favour the
higher speeds.
Mass of Inducted Charge:

 The greater the mass of the charge inducted, the higher the power produced. For a given engine, the geometry is fixed, and
it is desirable to induct a charge to a maximum possible density giving the highest volumetric efficiency.

Heat Losses:

 It should be noted that the large proportion of the available energy is lost in a non-usable form, i.e., heat losses. Any
method which can be employed to prevent the excessive heat loss and cause this energy to leave the engine is a usable
form will tend to increase engine performance.

 Higher coolant temperatures, for instance, provide a smaller temperature gradient around combustion chamber walls and a
reduction in heat loss, but are limited by the possibility of damage to engine parts.
METHODS OF IMPROVING ENGINE PERFORMANCE:

The engine designer is always interested in methods through which engine performance may be improved. There are two
general areas in which methods can be utilized to improve performance.

(i) the energy put into the engine at the start may be increased, and/or

(ii) the efficiency with which the fuel energy is converted to mechanical energy may be increased.

Energy supply may be increased by increasing the mass of charge entering the combustion chamber. Supercharging is one
method of accomplishing this. Larger piston displacement is another solution, but is limited by engine weight and cooling
problems. Improvement in volumetric efficiency would also increase the mass of charge. Higher engine speeds may be utilized,
but these result in increased friction losses, and above a certain point, in lowered volumetric efficiency. Improvements in fuels
resulting in greater usable energy content without detonation would also help.

Also, it is possible to take advantage of the kinetic energy in the exhaust gas to increase the engine output through use of
exhaust driven turbines. In this case, the exhaust gas from engine cylinders drives a turbine which is connected to the engine
crankshaft, thus increasing engine output. Engines having this type of power booster are known as turbocompound engines.
HEAT BALANCE:

Energy supplied to an engine is the heat value of the fuel consumed. As has been repeatedly pointed out, only a part of this
energy is transformed into useful work. The rest of it is either wasted or utilized in special application like
turbocompounding. The two main parts of the heat not available for work are the heat carried away by the exhaust gases and
the cooling medium.

Comparison of Heat balance diagram for typical SI and CI engine:

Fig. Heat balance diagram for a typical SI engine Fig. Heat balance diagram for a typical CI engine
 Fig. External heat balance

The heat balance may be external or internal. Typical external heat balance is shown in Fig. Usually the amount of heat
carried by lubricating oil is comparatively small and are normally not included. A further method of representing heat
balance is by means of the Sankey diagram.
Sankey Diagram:

 This is a stream type diagram in which the width of the stream represents the heat quantity being considered, usually as
a percentage of the heat supplied, as shown in Fig.

 It may be observed that the diagram starts at the bottom with a stream
width which represents the heat input from the fuel which is 100% of the
heat input and is marked as such.

 Moving up the diagram, first the coolant loss stream is let off to the left.
The width of this stream represents the percentage loss to the coolant.
Still higher the exhaust loss stream is let off to the left and finally the loss
to the surroundings appears.

 The loss streams finally meet a single loss stream as shown of the
original vertical stream, only the brake power output stream is left at the
top of the diagram. The figures on the diagram are percentages of the
heat supplied in the fuel.
Fig. Sankey diagram
 A more detailed diagram for a spark-ignition
engine is shown in Fig. In this case, actually
the heat distribution is much more involved.

 During the suction or scavenging period the

entering fresh charge receives heat from the
residual gases and from the cylinder walls.

 Part of the indicated work on the piston is

transformed through friction into heat,
which goes mostly into the cooling medium
but partly into the exhaust gases and
lubricating oil and also is dissipated through
the crankcase to the surrounding air.
Fig. Sankey diagram for an SI engine
PERFORMANCE MAPS:

For critical analysis the performance of an IC engine under all conditions of load and speed is shown by a performance map.

SI Engines:

Constant Speed Line :

Reduced bsfc is obtained by moving upward along constant speed line. Mixture enrichment at high load more than offsets
increase in mechanical efficiency. Moving to lower bmeps, the bsfc increases because of the reduced mechanical efficiency.

Constant bmep Line :

Moving from the region of highest efficiency along a line of constant bmep, the bsfc increases due to increased friction at
higher piston speeds. Moving to the left towards lower piston speed, although friction mep decreases, indicated efficiency
falls off owing to poor fuel distribution and increased heat losses.

CI Engines:

In the CI engine the bsf c increases at high loads owing to the increased fuel waste (smoke) associated with high fuel-air
ratios. At lower load bsfc increases due to decrease in mechanical efficiency (same as in the SI engine). An interesting
feature of the performance curves is that they show the power at maximum economy is about half of the maximum power.
Fig. Generalized performance map of Fig. Performance map of a four-stroke pre-
automotive SI engine chamber diesel engine