TA SESSION

Chapter 4(A)
 Contrast the generation
and conduction of
graded potentials with
that of action

Objective 1
potentials, identifying
on the neuron area in
which each occurs
 Basic Principles

Nerve cells and muscle cells are excitable

By altering their permeability

Which leads to a change in their membrane potential

This change can act as an electrical signal

What is a graded potential

 A local change in membrane potential

 How do we get one:
1. Triggering event
2. Ion channels open causing ion movement (usually Na+
influx through ligand-gated channels)
3. Membrane potential changes (locally) and spreads to
adjacent areas on the membrane
4. The current can die out or lead to an action potential
Graded potentials are like trying to
start the wave
Graded
potential
 An excitatory graded
potential brings membrane
Hypopolarizing
potential closer to the
threshold potential
Graded
potentials can be
excitatory or
inhibitory Inhibitory graded
potentials bring the Hyperpolarizing
membrane potential
further from threshold
 NEURON

+20 HYPOPOLARIZATION
+10
Membrane potential (mV)

Depolarization (decrease in potential;

0 membrane less negative)
–10
Repolarization (return to resting potential
–20
after depolarization)
–30
–40 Hyperpolarization (increase in
–50 potential; membrane more negative)
–60
–70 Resting potential
–80
–90

Time (msec)

Fig. 4-1, p. 90
terms

 Hypopolarization: membrane becomes more positive

 Ex: Na+ influx
 Hyperpolarization: membrane becomes more negative
 Ex: K+ efflux
 Depolarization: transient reversal of membrane
potential triggered at an excitable cell’s threshold
potential
 Repolarization: a hyperpolarization back to RMP
Every action potential starts
as a graded potential
 If a graded potential hypopolarizes an excitable cell’s
membrane to its threshold potential, it turns into an
action potential
 At threshold, voltage-gated ion channels open, resulting
in a transient potential reversal: depolarization (ICF
becomes more positive than ECF)
 Unlike graded potentials, action potentials propagate
throughout the entire membrane
 Although all action potentials start as graded potentials,
action potentials have distinct characteristics…
 Graded vs Action Potentials

Graded potentials Action potentials

• Long distance signals
 Short-distance signals
• Depolarize
 Hypopolarize or hyperpolarize
• Always results in signal conduction
 Vary in magnitude and duration
and NT release
 Might not result in conduction
• Do not vary in duration/magnitude
of a signal
• Only muscle and nerve cells
 Mechanical/Ligand-gated ion
channels • Voltage-gated Na+ and K+ channels

 No refractory period • Refractory and relative refractory

periods
 Summation
• In neuron, generated at the axon
 In neuron, occurs at the
dendrites hillock and travels through the axon
Graded vs Action Potentials
 Define and identify the
dendrites, axon, axon

Objective 2
hillock and soma
 1) Input zone receives incoming
signals from other neurons.
Dendrites= graded potentials

Cell body

2) Trigger zone 3) Conducting zone conducts

initiates action action potentials in undiminishing
Nucleus potentials. fashion, often over long distances.
Axon hillock = Axon= action potentials (may be from
action potentials 1mm
to more than 1 m long)

Axon Terminals = Voltage gated Ca++

channels 4) Output zone releases
Dendrites neurotransmitter that
influences other cells.
Cell body

Axon

Fig. 4-8, p. 98
Graded potentials have better
chances of generating action
potentials the closer they
occur to the axon hillock
(trigger zone)

This is because graded potentials die out as the

current gets further from its initiation site
K+ efflux is what returns
the membrane to RMP
 Diagram the various

Objective 3 phases of an action

potential and link each
phase to the activity of

&4 Na+, K+ channels and

ion influxes
Action potential

 Excitable cell membrane is depolarized to threshold

potential (-50 mV)
 At threshold, changes in BOTH Na+ and K+ permeability
are initiated
 These permeability changes produce a reversal of
membrane potential from –50 to +30 mV = true
depolarization
 This is an action potential
 4

Na+ channel closes and is inactivated K+ channel opens

(activation gate still open; inactivation (activation gate opens)
gate closes)

Na+ channel
reset to closed
but capable
of opening K+ channel
Na channel
+
closes
opens and (activation
gate closes; (activation
is activated gate closes)

phase
(activation inactivation
gate opens; gate opens)

K+ out → fa
inactivation

Na + in → rising
gate already
open)
3 5

g phasellin
K+ voltage-gated channel closed
(activation gate closed) 2
Threshold potential

1 6 8
Resting potential
7
Depolarizing
triggering event

Na+ voltage-gated channel closed

(activation gate closed; inactivation gate open)
Fig. 4-7a, p. 96
 Steps of an action potential

1. A graded potential hypopolarizes the membrane to its threshold potential

2. At threshold: sodium activation gates open, sodium inactivation gates close, and
potassium gates open (much slower)
1. All are voltage-gated channels. They are triggered whenever the membrane reaches
threshold potential
3. Na+ influx through the voltage-gated sodium channel depolarizes the cell
4. Sodium activation gates close (no more sodium influx) around the same time that
potassium gates open enough to allow K+ to efflux (around +30 mV)
5. Potassium efflux repolarizes the membrane back to resting potential with a brief
period of hyperpolarization below RMP
1. Brief hyperpolarization below RMP is due to the potassium channels being slow to close.
(They are also slow to open which is why we don’t see K+ efflux immediately at threshold)
6. Sodium inactivation gates reset so that the cell is ready to undergo another action
potential
There are 2 different sodium gates
that allow for 3 different scenarios

VOLTAGE-GATED SODIUM CHANNEL

ECF

Plasma
membrane

ICF Rapid Slow

Activation gate opening closing
triggered triggered
Inactivation gate at threshold at threshold
(a) Closed but (b) Open (c) Closed and not
capable of opening (activated) capable of opening
(inactivated)

Fig. 4-5, p. 95
 Voltage-gated channels

 Respond to changes in potential by changing conformation, and allowing

ion influx/efflux
 Na+ voltage-gated channel:
 Activation gate = voltage gated. Opens at -50mV
 Inactivation gate= time-sensitive. Takes 0.5 msec to close after threshold
(chronotropic)
 Open again when the membrane is repolarized below threshold
 Refractory period ends when sodium inactivation gates reset
 K+ voltage gated channel:
 Activation gate = voltage gated. Sensitive to -50mV
 Slow to open…. Opening is triggered at threshold, but we don’t see K+
leaving through it until around +30 mV
 starts closing during the relative refractory period
VOLTAGE-GATED SODIUM CHANNEL VOLTAGE-GATED POTASSIUM CHANNEL
Activation
gate
ECF

Plasma
membrane

ICF Rapid Slow Delayed

Activation gate opening closing opening
triggered triggered triggered
Inactivation gate at threshold at threshold at threshold
(a) Closed but (b) Open (c) Closed and not (d) Closed (e) Open
capable of opening (activated) capable of opening
(inactivated)

Fig. 4-5, p. 95
what about the na/k pump?

• ~1 out of 100,000 K+ ions in the cell leave during AP

• Similar for Na+ entering from ECF
• Small movement of ions lead to very large changes in
potential but tiny changes in concentration
• Gradients still exist
• Many APs can occur without the pump needing to step in
 Define the all-or-none
law

Objective 5
LOCATION, LOCATION, LOCATION
All-or-None

 An action potential in a patch of membrane

generates a new action potential in the area next
to it by local currents.
 This cycle continues until the action potential has
spread throughout the cell membrane.
 Action potentials propagate in one direction.
 Action potentials do not diminish as they
propagate.
 New adjacent inactive area
Previous active New active area into which depolarization
asd
area returned to at peak of action is spreading; will soon reach
resting potential potential threshold

“Backward” current flow does “Forward” current flow excites

not re-excite previously
active area because this area
is in its refractory period (K+
efflux)
new inactive area
Direction of propagation
of action potential
Fig. 4-10, p. 101
 Explain the refractory
period

Objective 6
 Absolute Relative
refractory refractory
Membrane potential (mV) period period

resting Na+ permeability)

(times more permeable than
Relative membrane permeability
+30
Action potential 600

0 Na+ permeability

300

K+ permeability

–70
25
1
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Time (msec) Fig. 4-11, p. 102
Refractory periods

ABSOLUTE REFRACTORY RELATIVE REFRACTORY

PERIOD PERIOD
 The period in which a cell  A cell can undergo an action
can not undergo another potential, but it is harder than
usual because the membrane
AP potential is below RMP
 Starts at threshold  Due to K+ gates being slow to
close
 Ends whenever sodium
gates reset (inactivation
 Prolonged K+ efflux makes the
membrane more negative and
gate opens when cell therefore, further from
repolarizes) threshold
Refractory periods

 Absolute refractory period

defines the maximum
frequency of action potentials
 Only a “stronger than usual”
event can trigger an action
potential during a relative
refractory period
 The refractory period ensures
one-way propagation of an
action potential
What would happen in the cardiac
muscle with an E(K+) of -42 mV?

A. RMP would become more negative, leading to the heart

contracting less.
B. RMP would remain unchanged, and the heart would
continue to beat normally.
C. RMP would become less negative, so it would be easier
for the muscles to fire.
D. RMP would rise above the threshold value, keeping the
Na+ inactivation gates closed, and the muscle would fail
to contract.
During the absolute refractory
period of a neuron:
A. The neuron cannot generate another action potential
B. Graded potentials can occur
C. An action potential can occur if the stimulus is strong
enough
D. A&B
E. B&C
Which is true about
refractory periods?
A. During the relative refractory period, no other action
potential can be generated.
B. The absolute refractory period ends with the opening of
voltage gated channels.
C. During the relative refractory period, it is easier for
subsequent action potentials to be generated for a
small amount of time.
D. During the absolute refractory period, another action
potential will never occur.
Which on the following is/are
correct?

A. Graded potentials always result in action

potentials
B. The stronger the stimulus, the greater the
amplitude of the AP
C. The stronger the stimulus, the greater the
amplitude of the graded potential
D. Graded potentials are formed by opening voltage
gated channels
E. All of these are correct
Which of the following are
false concerning a neuron?

A. Graded potentials from other neurons occur at

the dendrites.
B. The closer to the axon hillock, the more power
the signal has in order to initiate/inhibit an AP
C. Axons can vary greatly in length
D. Axon terminals release neurotransmitters (NT)
when their Na+ voltage-gated channels are
activated
E. All of these are true
Which on the following is/are correct
concerning action potentials?

A. They are triggered by a hyperpolarization which

brings the membrane potential to -50 mV
B. They lose magnitude when they encounter a node
of Ranvier.
C. Action potentials occur at threshold, when
voltage gated Na+ activation gates are opened.
D. None of these are correct