3.

Manufacturing
Inoculation
Process-II
Unit 2: Mechanics of Machining Processes
Contents
1. Introduction
2. Cutting Tools And Their Nomenclature
3. Basics of chip formation in machining processes
4. types of chips
5. Orthogonal cutting and Oblique cutting
6. Determination of shear plane angle, cutting forces in orthogonal cutting.
7. Merchant model for orthogonal cutting
8. Velocity relations, shear strain and rate of Shear strain plowing force and size
effect in metal cutting
9. Measurement of cutting forces in Turning, Drilling & Milling operations
Introduction
• Metal machining or metal cutting comprises those processes wherein
removal of material from a workpiece is effected by relative motion
between the cutting tool and the workpiece. Where the cutting tools used
will be made up of harder material.
• The cutting tool may be
(a) single-point cutting tool as used for turning on lathe or shaping
(b) multi-point cutting tool as used for drilling or milling operations.
• Basic elements of a machining operation include (a) workpiece, (b) tool and
(c) chip.
• One major drawback of machining process is loss of material in the form of
chips.
Cutting Tools And Their Nomenclature
• A cutting tool of harder material is forced through
the surplus material of the workpiece blank, the
surplus material being progressively separated from
the blank in the form of ‘chip’ because of the relative
motion maintained between tool and workpiece.
• The cutting tools are made from high strength and
harder materials such as high carbon steel, high
speed steel, cemented carbide, etc.
• A cutting tool never peels the material away from
the workpiece like a knife does. The tool has a
‘cutting edge’ which is blunt and needs sufficient
force to pry the chip from the job
Cutting Tools And Their Nomenclature
• The cutting edge causes the internal
shearing action in the metal such that
the metal below the cutting edge of the
tool yields and flows plastically.
• The compression of the metal under the
tool edge takes place [Fig a] which is
followed by the separation of the metal
in the form of chip [Fig b] when the
compression limit of the metal just
under the tool edge has been exceeded.
Cutting Tools And Their Nomenclature
• All cutting tools can be broadly classified as:
• (i) Single-point cutting tools having only one cutting edge. These
tools find wide applications for lathe, shaper, planer, slotter, boring
machine, etc.
• (ii) Multi-point cutting tools have more than one cutting edge such
as twist drills, reamers, taps, milling cutters, broaches, etc. A multi-
point cutting tool may differ in overall appearance and purpose but
each cutting edge of the tool acts as and has its basic features of a
single-point cutting tool.
Cutting Tools And Their Nomenclature
Cutting Tools And Their Nomenclature
• SHANK: It is the main part of the cutting tool, and is
also the part of the tool is gipped in the tool holder.
• FACE: It is the top portion or surface of the tool over
which the chip flows during the cutting.
• CUTTING EDGE: Cutting edge is the portion of the face
edge that separates the chip from the workpiece.
• END CUTTING EDGE: It is the cutting edge formed at
the end face of the tool.
• SIDE CUTTING EDGE: It is the cutting edge on the side
face of the tool.
• FLANK: It is the surface adjacent to, and below the
cutting edge when tool lies in a horizontal position.
• NOSE: It is the tip of the cutting tool and formed by the
intersection of the side cutting edge and the end
cutting edge.
Cutting Tools And Their Nomenclature
Cutting Tools And Their Nomenclature
• Rake refers to the slope of the tool top away from the cutting edge. Tool has side rake and back
rake.
• BACK RAKE ANGLE: It measurers the downward slope of the top surface of the tool from the
nose to the rear along the z axis.
• SIDE RAKE ANGLE: It measures the slope of the top Surface of the tool to the side in a direction
Perpendicular to the z-axis.
• SIDE CUTTING EDGE ANGLE: It is the angle between the Side cutting edge and the z-axis of the
tool.
• SIDE RELIEF ANGLE: It is the angle made by the flank Of the tool and a plane perpendicular to
the base just under the side cutting edge.
• END CUTTING EDGE ANGLE: It is the angle between the end cutting edge and a line
perpendicular to the Tool shank.
• END RELIEF ANGLE: It is the angle between a plane Perpendicular to the base and the flank of
the tool.
Cutting Tools And Their Nomenclature
Angles of a Single-point Cutting Tool
• Angles of the tool play a significant role in efficient and economical
machining of different metals.
• These tool angles vary according to the metal to be machined and the
tool material.
• A change in the main angles of cutting tool will correspondingly
change the forces due to the cutting action as also the conditions for
heat transmission through the cutting elements of the tool.
• Thus, the tool angles of a cutting tool influence its performance and
life.
Cutting Tools And Their Nomenclature
Cutting Tools And Their Nomenclature
• Rake angle is the rake or slope of the tool face and is formed between tool face and a plane parallel to
its base. When this slope is towards the shank, it is called back rake or top rake and when measured
towards the side of the tool, it is called side rake.
• Rake angle has the following functions:
(i) Allows chips to flow in a convenient direction away from the cutting edge.
(ii) Reduces chip pressure on tool face and provides keenness to the cutting edge and consequently improves finish
on the workpiece.
(iii) Reduces cutting forces required to shear the metal and thus helps increasing tool life and reduces power
consumption.
• Provision of rake angle depends upon following main factors:
I. Workpiece materials as harder materials (cast iron) need smaller rake angle than softer materials such as
aluminium or steel.
II. Tool material, for example, cemented carbide permits machining at very high cutting speeds with little effect of
rake angle on cutting pressure and hence rake angle in such cases may be reduced to zero or even negative rake
may be provided to increase tool strength.
III. Depth of cut, for example, higher depth of cut (as in rough cutting) gives severe cutting pressures on tool and
hence rake is decreased to increase tip angle that results in strong cutting edge.
Cutting Tools And Their Nomenclature
• The rake or slope of the face of the tool may be positive, zero or negative as shown.
• Positive rake: A tool has positive rake when face of the tool slopes away from the cutting edges and also slants towards
the back (shank) or side of the tool (Fig.a). A rake angle specifies the ease with which a metal is machined. The higher the
rake angle, the better is the cutting and less are cutting forces. Since an increase in rake angle reduces the strength of tool
tip, heat dissipation and tool life, it is, therefore, usually kept not more than 15° (for high speed steel tool).
• Zero rake: A tool has zero rake when no rake is provided on tool, i.e. the tool face has no slope and is parallel to the upper
surface of the tool shank [Fig.b]. A zero rake increases tool strength and avoids digging of the tool into the workpiece.
Brass is turned well with tools having zero rake angle.
• Negative rake: A tool has negative rake when the tool face slopes away from the cutting edge and slants upwards towards
the side or back of the tool [Fig. c]. Negative rake is used on cemented carbide or ceramic tools. Negative rake results into
a tool with reduced keenness but stronger cutting edge (and hence stronger tool) or tool tip. Carbide tools with negative
rake are used for machining extra hard surfaces and stronger materials in mass production.
Cutting Tools And Their Nomenclature
Cutting Tools And Their Nomenclature
Advantage of using negative rake on tool
• Negative rake gives larger tip angle and hence a stronger tool.
• In case of tipped tools, an advantage with negative rake is that there is a
tendency of the chip pressure to press tip against the body of tool, a favourable
factor since carbide tips are very good for compressive loads. Negative rake on
these tools varies from 5° to 10°.
• The point of application of cutting force is altered from cutting edge (a weaker
tip) to a stronger section.
• Very high cutting speeds can be used for faster metal removal.
• Tool wear is decreased and hence tool life is increased.
• Heavier depth of cut can be taken as negative rake increases tip angle of the tool.
Cutting Tools And Their Nomenclature
• Clearance angles: Clearance angle is the angle between the
machined surface and the flank faces of the tool.
• It helps preventing the flank of the tool from rubbing against the
surface of the workpiece, thus allowing the cutting edge of the tool
only to come in contact with the workpiece.
• For example, front clearance angle (also called end relief angle)
prevents the front or auxiliary flank of the tool from rubbing against
the finished surface of the workpiece.
• In case the angle is too small, the tool will rub on the surface of the
job and spoil surface finish. Too large end relief angle may give tool
digging tendency and may chatter.
• The side clearance angle (or side relief angle) prevents the side or
main flank of the tool from rubbing against the workpiece under
longitudinal feeds.
• Values of these angles for turning tools vary between 5° and 15°.
Cutting Tools And Their Nomenclature
• Side cutting edge angle: Side cutting edge angle is the angle between the side
cutting edge and the longitudinal axis of tool.
• Its complimentary angle is approach angle, which is between feed direction and
side cutting edge.
• Side cutting edge angle helps providing a wider cutting edge and thus an increased
tool life as cutting force, distributed on wider surface, provides greater cutting
speeds and quick heat dissipation and gives a better finish on work surface.
• It controls direction of chip flow.
• It is usually kept around 15° although in turning tools, it varies from 0 to 90°
• End cutting edge angle: It prevents the trailing end of the cutting edge of tool from
rubbing against the workpiece. A larger end cutting edge angle weakens the tool. It
is usually kept between 8° and 15°.
Cutting Tools And Their Nomenclature
• Lip angle: Lip angle or cutting angle depends on the rake and clearance
angle provided on tool and determines the strength of cutting edge.
• The lip angle is maximum when rake (positive) and clearance angle are
minimum. But in negative rake, lip angle increases as rake increases.
• A larger lip angle permits machining of harder metals, allows heavier
depth of cut and increases tool life and better heat dissipation. This
simultaneously calls for reduced cutting speeds, which is a disadvantage.
• Nose radius: While greater nose radius increases abrasion, it also helps in
improving surface finish, tool strength and tool life. Large nose radius
may cause chatter (machining vibrations). For rough turning, it is kept
about 0.4 mm and for finish turning, 0.8 to 1.6 mm.
Cutting Tools And Their Nomenclature
Basics of chip formation in machining processes
• Consider a simple case of cutting with an ordinary hand tool, say a
flat chisel, under the blows of hammer because the cutting principle
as applied to any hand tool used in bench working or a cutting tool
used on a machine tool is the same.
• shearing action of a cold chisel is shown during the process of
cutting surplus metal from a workpiece under the blow of a
hammer.
• The chisel is shown flat on the workpiece surface without any
clearance angle, primarily to ensure that depth of cut can be
maintained and secondly, the clearance angle takes no actual part in
the cutting or shearing action of the chisel.
• Under the effect of heavy blows of hammer, the metal ahead of the
cutting edge of chisel will shear across the shear plane and moves
up the chisel face AC in the form of a ‘segment of chip’.
• Since the energy required to shear or rupture the metal will be the
shearing force along the shear plane AB, this shearing force will,
therefore, be proportional to the length AB.
Basics of chip formation in machining processes
• Chip formation may be compared to the
movement of card stack when pushed along the
tool face.
• The consecutive displacements of lamellae of
forming chip are depicted in Fig. wherein the
segments of the chip numbered from 1 to 6
earlier occupied the positions shown by the
dotted lines.
• When the tool advances, the segment 7 slips a
finite distance relative to the uncut metal.
• As the tool advances further, the next segment 8
slips similarly and previous segment 7 moves
over the tool as a part of the chip.
Basics of chip formation in machining processes
• The basic mechanism of chip formation,
therefore, consists of a deformation of
metal lying just ahead of the cutting edge of
tool, by process of shear, in a narrow zone
(called shear zone or primary deformation
zone) extending from the cutting edge of
the tool obliquely up to the uncut surface
of workpiece in front of the tool.
• During metal cutting, the metal in the area
in front of the cutting edge of the tool is
severely compressed causing high
temperature shear stress in the metal, the
shear stress being maximum along a
narrow zone or plane called the shear plane
Basics of chip formation in machining processes
• When the shear stress in the workpiece metal just ahead of the
cutting edge of tool reaches a value exceeding the ultimate strength
of the metal, particles of the metal start shearing away (or rupture)
and flow plastically along the shear plane, forming ‘segments of chip’
which flow upwards along the face of the tool.
• More new chip segments are formed and the cycle of compression,
plastic flow and rupture is repeated resulting into the birth of a
continuously flowing chip.
• Since the width of shear zone is small, chip formation is often
described as a process of successive shears of thin layers of workpiece
metal along particular surfaces.
Basics of chip formation in machining processes
• Chips are highly compressed body and have burnished and deformed underside (due to deformation at
secondary shear zone on account of friction between chip and tool face).
• The primary shear zone deformations are required for the formation of chip, whereas deformations in
secondary shear zone are secondary deformations which, in fact, are disturbances and are not required.
• The shearing of the metal in the process of chip formation does not, however, take place sharply along
the shear plane shown by a straight line (LM). In actual case, the complete plastic deformation occurs
over a definite area, represented by ABDC.
• Formation of chip starts when the metal structure begins elongating along the line BA which is below the
shear plane and continues to do so until it is completely deformed along the line DC above the shear
plane and is born as ‘chip’.
• Shear zone (or primary deformation zone) lies between the lines BA and DC. These two lines may not be
parallel (giving uniform width of shear zone) but may produce a wedge-shaped zone thicker near the tool
face at the right and thinner on opposite to it, a feature which is considered responsible for ‘curling of
chips’ during machining.
• At high speed cutting, shear zone can be assumed to be restricted to a straight line plane called shear
plane inclined at an angle (shear angle).
Types of Chips
• The type of chip formed is affected by the properties of workpiece
material and cutting conditions.
• The chip because of its form and dimensions is the indication of the
nature and quality of a particular machining process.
• Chips can be broadly classified into the following types.
a. Discontinuous chip or segmental chip
b. Continuous chip
c. Continuous chip with built-up edge
Types of Chips
Discontinuous chip or segmental chip
• It consists of elements separated into short segments.
• This type of chip is obtained in machining hard and brittle metals such
as cast iron and bronze.
• When workpiece metal is brittle, it has little capacity for deformation
before fracture and the chip separates along the shear plane.
• Chips may be in the form of completely individual segments or loose
chips formed by adhering of segments. These loose chips fracture easily.
• In case of brittle metal, the presence of these chips affords fine finish,
increased tool life and low power consumption.
• Machining of ductile metals at very slow speed may also give
discontinuous chips.
• Discontinuous chips in machining ductile metal result in poor finish and
excessive tool wear.
Types of Chips
• Continuous chip has its elements bonded together
and is formed by continuous deformation of metal
without fracture ahead of the cutting edge of tool and
followed by smooth flow of chip up the tool face.
• Upper side of a continuous chip has small notches,
and the lower side is smooth and shiny as the chip
slides over the tool.
• This type of chip is formed in machining at high-speed
soft ductile metals such as mild steel and copper and
is considered the most desirable type of chip.
Types of Chips
• Continuous chip with built-up edge is very much similar
to the continuous type chip except that a built-up edge is
found adhering on the nose of the tool.
• Chip is formed while machining ductile metal and
existence of high friction at the chip-tool interface.
• The upward flowing chip exerts pressure on the tool face
which is very high being maximum at the cutting edge or
nose of the tool. As a result of this, excessively high
temperature is generated because of which the
compressed metal adjacent to tool nose gets welded to it.
• This extra metal welded to the nose or point of the tool is
called built-up edge.
Types of Chips
• The built-up edge is highly strain-hardened and brittle because of which
when the chip flows up the tool, a part of the built-up edge is broken and
carried away with the chip while the rest of it keeps adhering with the
workpiece surface, making it rough.
• The presence of built-up edge at the nose of the tool alters the rake angle of
the tool and consequently the cutting forces are changed.
• Factors responsible for formation of built-up edge are low cutting speed,
excessive feed, smaller rake angle and poor lubrication or cooling of tool
during cutting.
• Besides giving rough machined surface and fluctuating cutting force and tool
vibration, built-up edge also carries away some material from the tool
leading to the formation of a crater which results in tool wear.
Types of Chips
• Formation of a built-up edge can be avoided by
i. Reducing friction at chip tool interface by means of polishing the tool face
and use of adequate supply of lubricant
ii. keeping larger rake angle and
iii. maintaining low feeds and higher cutting speed as the latter generates high
temperature which reduces weld strength and reduces possibility of
formation of built-up edge through welding.
Homogeneous strain chips
• They produced in machining metals like titanium alloys and others
suffering a marked decrease in yield strength with temperature and
poor thermal conductivity. Such chips are banded with regions of large
and small strains.
Types of Chips
Chip Control and Chip Breakers
• Machining of specially high tensile strength metals at higher speeds generates
chips that need to be handled with care, particularly if the carbide tools are used.
• Higher speeds generate high temperatures and continuous type of chips with blue
colour which get collected in the shape of a coil.
• Large continuous coils (if allowed to be formed) may prove quite dangerous as
they may engage the entire machine and workpiece and give a lot of difficulties in
their removal.
• Besides this, cutting edge of the tool is spoiled due to crater formation.
• The finish on the workpiece is poor.
• If the chip gets curled around the revolving workpiece or the tool, it may be a
hazardous situation for the operator.
Types of Chips
Chip Control and Chip Breakers
• Chip breakers are, therefore, used with the tool which help in
breaking the chips into small pieces (as it is easy to break the chips
which are work-hardened during the chip formation).
Orthogonal and Oblique Cutting
• Two basic methods of metal cutting with a single-point tool:
1. Orthogonal cutting(or two-dimensional cutting)
• Orthogonal cutting takes place when the cutting face (or cutting edge) of the tool
remains at right angles to the direction of cutting velocity or work feed
• The orthogonal cutting is confined mainly to such operations as parting off, facing,
knife turning, broaching, slotting, etc.

2. Oblique cutting (or three-dimensional cutting)

• Oblique cutting takes place when the cutting face or cutting edge of the tool is
inclined at an angle less than 90° with the direction of tool feed or work feed, the
chip being disposed off at a certain angle
• Bulk metal machining carried out in shops is through oblique cutting method only.
Orthogonal and Oblique Cutting
Orthogonal and Oblique Cutting
• In machining with same depth of cut and feed by the above two methods, the
cutting force that shears the metal acts on a larger area in the case of oblique
cutting. It results in smaller heat developed per unit area due to friction along
the tool-workpiece interface and consequently longer tool life.
• In orthogonal cutting (Fig.a) where cutting edge of the tool (OC) is at right
angle to relative velocity V of the work, the chip coils in a tight, flat spiral.
• In oblique cutting (Fig.b) where cutting edge of the tool is inclined at an angle
(i), the chip flows sideways in a long curl. The inclination angle (i) is the angle
between the cutting edge and the normal to the direction of the work velocity
(V). The chip flow angle (c) is the angle measured in the plane of the cutting
face between the chip flow direction and the normal to the cutting edge.
• In orthogonal cutting, i = 0 and c = 0.
Orthogonal and Oblique Cutting
Orthogonal and Oblique Cutting
Orthogonal cutting
Cutting edge remains normal to the direction of
work feed (or velocity V).
Direction of chip flow velocity is normal to the
cutting edge.
Angle of inclination (i) is zero.
Chip flow angle (c) is zero.
Cutting edge is larger than the width of cut.
Oblique cutting
Cutting edge remains inclined at an acute angle to
the direction of work feed.
Direction of chip flow velocity is at angle (c).
Cutting edge inclined at an angle (i) with normal
to work feed (or velocity V).
Three mutually perpendicular components of cutting
forces act at the cutting edge of the tool.
Cutting edge may or may not be longer than the
width of cut.
Orthogonal Cutting (Chip Thickness Ratio)
Chip Thickness Ratio (Cutting Ratio)
• The thickness of the chip produced
is more than the actual depth of
cut. The reason is that a chip flows
upwards at a slower speed than the
velocity of cut.
• The velocity of chip flow is directly
affected by the shear plane angle
(); the smaller this angle, the
slower will be the chip flow velocity
and thicker will be the chip.
• Note that the thickness of chip (tc)
is more the depth of the cut (t).
Orthogonal Cutting (Chip Thickness Ratio)
• Refer above Fig. Let
• t = chip thickness prior to deformation
= depth of cut, which in a turning operation, is ‘feed’ per revolution
• tc = chip thickness after deformation
• Then, chip thickness ratio (r) =
• The reverse of ‘r’ is called chip reduction ratio or coefficient (K).
• Then, chip reduction ratio (K) =
• Since ‘tc’ is always more than ‘t’, chip thickness ratio (r) is always less
than unity. The higher the value of ‘r’, the better will be the machining
operation.
Orthogonal Cutting (Chip Thickness Ratio)
• Since orthogonal cutting is being considered, width of chip equals to
width of cut.
• Taking volume of chip produced equal to volume of metal cut, and
width and specific gravity of metal being same for both cases,
t . l = tc . lc
• where l = length of chip before cutting = D/rev
lc = length of chip
• Or r= =
=
• Then, K =
Orthogonal Cutting (Shear plane angle)
Shear plane angle ()
• In Fig. , = shear angle, = tool rake angle
depth of cut = t = ML sin
chip thickness = tc = ML cos ( – )
• Then, chip thickness ratio (r):
r= = =
=
• Dividing numerator and denominator by sin
r=
Orthogonal Cutting (Shear plane angle)
Or r () = 1
Or =
• Or tan =
Hence,
Shear angle () = tan-1
Contents
1. Introduction
2. Cutting Tools And Their Nomenclature
3. Basics of chip formation in machining processes
4. types of chips
5. Orthogonal cutting and Oblique cutting
6. Determination of shear plane angle, cutting forces in orthogonal cutting.
7. Merchant model for orthogonal cutting
8. Velocity relations, shear strain and rate of Shear strain plowing force and size
effect in metal cutting
9. Measurement of cutting forces in Turning, Drilling & Milling operations
Cutting Forces in Orthogonal Cutting
THANK YOU