SOIL / WATER / PLANT RELATIONSHIP

SOIL / WATER / PLANT RELATIONSHIP

The aim of this chapter is:

To provide vital information concerning the
soil condition,
The water availability and the needs of the
crop.
Guidelines for planning and
management of a the irrigation system.
 SOIL
Soil characteristics influence the choice of crop and variety to be
grown, and the planning of irrigation and Nutrigation™.
Soil composition In general, soil is composed of three
components: sand, silt and clay. The
relative amount of these components
affects the soil's texture, influencing its
Water retention rate.
In most soil types the particles form
bigger units, known as aggregates.
Aggregates stick together and form
clods. Between the particles,
aggregates and clods
there are pores.
 SOIL
solid
‫מוצק‬

water air
SOIL PROFILE
 SOIL PROFILE

6
 SOIL TEXTURE
pores are known as "capillary pores". In sandy soil the porosity is permanent and
stabilized. In heavy soil the porosity changes depending on changes in the moisture of
the soil.

Water retention is affected by the soil texture and type. For example, 15% moisture
volume in a light soil will be adequate for crops to flourish, whereas the same
percentage in a medium soil would be borderline and in a heavy soil it would not
sufficient for plant survival.

The water is trapped in the pores and accumulates as a thin liquid layer around the soil
particles. When the soil dries out as a result of percolation, evaporation and root
uptake, the water is first extracted from the large pores, while still clinging to the small
ones. When the plant needs water, it draws it from the pores starting with the larger
ones first.

The mechanism of water retention around soil particles is based on the retention on
the surface area of these particles. Sand, silt and clay particles build up and form
aggregates, known as the soil structure.
Well-structured soils have more pores and retain more water than compact soils.

Silty soils have high water retention rates (they consist of very small particles and
display a large surface area). Light soils have low retention rates (they consist of larger
particles and display a smaller surface area).
 Soil texture affects irrigation scheduling in two important ways:

 It determines how quickly the soil accepts water,

and it should be known prior to design of a
irrigation system since it influences emitters flow
rate and spacing.

 It determines how much water the root zone

water reservoir holds, and how much of that
water is available to the plant.
 SOIL TYPES
 Gravel: Rock fragments 2 mm to 75 mm in diameter.

 Sand: A soil particle between 0.05 and 2.0 mm in diameter

 Silt: A soil separate consisting of particles between 0.05 and 0.002

mm in equivalent diameter.

 Clay: As particle-size term – a size fraction less than 0.002 mm in

equivalent diameter.

 Soil texture: The relative proportions of the various soil separates

in a soil.
 PROPERTIES OF SOIL SEPARATES
Sand
 Sand-sized particles (2 mm – 0.05 mm diameter) are irregular in size
and shape.

 Sand feels gritty when pressed between figures.

 The large pores between sand particles promote drainage and

aeration in soil.

PERCOLATION M”M/H – INFILTRATION RATE M”M/H

Sand / Gravel soils - 25- 200 mm/h.

 SILT
 Silt-size particles (0.05 mm – 0.002 mm diameter) are essentially
micro-sand particles.

 Silt feels smooth as flour.

 Silt-sized particles are much smaller than sand-sized particles.

 The size of pores between particles is smaller.

 Water are held by capillary forces and against the force of gravity.

 Silt by itself is not sticky or plastic even when wet, and this is what
differentiate silt from clay.

 Silt / loam - fine texture – 4-7 mm/h.

 CLAY
 Clay-sized particles (smaller than 0.002 mm diameter) have large ratio
of surface to volume, 10-1000 m2/g, in compare to Silt – 1 m2/g and
Sand – 0.1 m2/g.

 Clay particles have a tremendous capacity to absorb water and other

substances on its surfaces.

 Clay is sticky when wet, and hard and cloddish when dry.

 Clay soils are slow in water and air movement.

 Some types of clay expand and contract greatly on wetting and drying
and have a tremendous impact on soil swelling and shrinkage.

 The presence of expanding clay leads to cracking of soil during dry

spells.

PERCOLATION M”M/H – INFILTRATION RATE M”M/H

 PROPERTIES OF SOIL SEPARATES
Sand
 Sand-sized particles (2 mm – 0.05 mm diameter) are irregular in size
and shape.

 Sand feels gritty when pressed between figures.

 The large pores between sand particles promote drainage and

aeration in soil.

PERCOLATION M”M/H – INFILTRATION RATE M”M/H

Sand / Gravel soils - 25- 200 mm/h.

 PROPERTIES OF SOIL SEPARATES
Sand
 Sand-sized particles (2 mm – 0.05 mm diameter) are irregular in size
and shape.

 Sand feels gritty when pressed between figures.

 The large pores between sand particles promote drainage and

aeration in soil.

PERCOLATION M”M/H – INFILTRATION RATE M”M/H

Sand / Gravel soils - 25- 200 mm/h.

 MINERAL PARTICLES
The size of mineral particles affects the:

 Physical, chemical and biological properties of soil.

 Soil aeration and drainage.

 Soil water holding capacity

CLASSIFICATION OF PARTICLE-SIZE RANGES OF SOIL
SEPARATES
Soil texture is the relative proportion of different-sized particles (soil
separates) in a soil, and applies to mineral particles that are smaller than
2 mm in diameter.

Particle Size (mm) Size (µm) Means of Observation

Sand 2.00 - 0.05 2000 - 50 Naked eye

Silt 0.05 - 0.002 50 - 2 Microscope
Clay <0.002 <2 µm Electron microscope
SOIL STRUCTURE

The combination or arrangement of primary soil particles into

secondary particles.

Soil structure is a fundamental property, which makes the soil a

porous medium.

A number of physical, chemical and biological processes are

affected by soil structure.
SOIL STRUCTURE
SOIL STRUCTURE
SOIL WATER RELATIONSHIP.
INFILTRATION RATE m”m/h
APPLICATION RATE m”m/h
IMPACT OF SOIL STRUCTURE ON SOIL
PROCESSES
(adapted from Jastrow and Miller, 1991)

Physical Processes Nutrient Cycling Carbon Cycling

Erosion Leaching Carbon dynamics

Run off Weathering of minerals Root turnover

Infiltration Ion exchange Root exudation
Hydraulic conductance Gas movement Microbial turnover
Fast drainage Mineralization Decomposition
Aeration Immobilization Respiration
Humification

Organic matter accumulation

Physical protection of carbon
1.2 Water in the Soil
 USABLE UNITS IN IRRIGATION
AREA UNITS
1 m’
m’1,000

Dunam = 1000 m²
Acre = 4000 m²
Hectare = 10000m² = 10dunam = 2.5 acre
VOLUME UNITS
1000 liter = 1 m³
1m³/dunam = 1 m”m/duam
‫ מ"מ‬1

1,000 m’ x 1 m’ x 0,001 m’ = 1 m³/dunam = 10m³/hectare

area = m² x volume m’ = m³ water amount
02/1
6/20
1 m”m = 1 liter/m² = 1 m³/dunam =
10m³/ha
STRUCTURE OF WATER MOLECULE AND HYDROGEN
BONDING BETWEEN WATER MOLECULES
ADHESION AND COHESION
Adhesion: Molecular attraction between
different substances. For example, water is
attracted to clay particles by adhesion.
Cohesion: Molecular attraction of the same
substance. For example, the attraction
between water molecules is cohesion.
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN ADHESION AND COHESION
IN A CAPILLARY
(ADAPTED FROM BRADY AND WEIL, 1996)
 CAPILLARY MECHANISMS IN SOILS
 The size of pores in soil is a function of soil textures
and affects the extent of capillary. Example:

 If the radius of a soil pore is 0.015 cm, the capillary

rise is 10 cm.
 If the radius is decreased ten-fold to 0.0015 cm, then
the capillary rise is 100 cm.

 Therefore, capillary rise is more significant in fine

textured soils than in coarser textured soil.
 CAPILLARY MECHANISM IN SOILS
 The size of pores in the soil is a function of
soil texture and affects the extent of capillary.
CLASSIFICATION OF SOIL WATER DEFINITIONS
 Saturated Soil: Soil that contains the maximum amount of water
possible. In such soils, all the pores are filled with water.

 Gravitational Water: The water that moves into, through, or out

of the soil by gravity.

 Capillary Water: Water that is left in soil, along with hygroscopic

moisture and water vapor, after the gravitational water has
drained off. Capillary water is held by surface tension on the
surface of soil particles and peds.

 Hygroscopic Water: water that held very tightly by the soil

particles, so that it unavailable to plants.
Field Capacity: The content of water, on a mass or volume basis,
remaining in a soil after free drainage is stopped.

Wilting point: The state of the water in the soil that defines the
point at which the plant no longer has the ability to absorb water
from the soil. Beyond the wilting point, the plant cannot survive
and crop wilting is irreversible.
 SATURATION POINT

ALL POROUSE ARE

FILLED WITH WATER
NO OXYGEN
NO GROWING
39 02/16/2022
 FIELD CAPACITY

BEST CONDITION FOR THE

PLANTS.
BALANCE BETWEEN AIR & WATER

40 02/16/2022
 WILTING POINT

NO WATER
ROOTS HAVE TO SPEND LOT
OF EFFORTS FOR GETTING
WATER.
After A.Naor
41 02/16/2022
SOIL-WATER-AIR - RELATIONS
 Available water

Soil texture Infiltration Pores % Specific weight W.P % of volume Layer of 1 meter
F.C
rate

Sandy Soil

Clay Soil
WATER AVAILABILITY

Water availability is the difference between field capacity and the wilting
point. Field capacity is defined as the state at which the field has
reached the point at which the maximum amount of water can be held.

The wilting point is defined as the state at which the field contains the
minimum amount of water required for a plant to survive.
 CONCEPTS
Soil water can be divided into three major categories:

Gravitational, Capillary and Hygroscopic.

 DEPTH OF WETTING
 When water is added to dry soil, it will wet each layer from its
present water content to field capacity and then will leach and
wet lower layers.
 In order to calculate depth of wetting, it is necessary to
calculate storage capacity on a mass as well on a volume
basis.
 As long as the rate of transpiration is balanced by rate of water
uptake by plant roots, cells remain turgid.
 If the rate of transpiration is greater than water uptake, plant
loses turgidity and the stomata close preventing further water
lose.
 This protective mechanism prevents desiccation and death of
the plant but also reduces gas exchange needed for
photosynthesis.
 Prolonged periods of wilting reduce plant yields.
THE WATER CONSUMPTION OF CROPS CONSISTS
MAINLY OF TWO COMPONENTS

Evaporation from the soil surface.

Transpiration of water through millions of

stomata in the leaves.

The water consumption of a crop is called:

“Evapo-transpiration”.
DETERMINING THE WATER APPLICATION FROM CLASS A
PAN-EVAPORATION DATA
1. Climate factors.
2. Plant factors:
 The proportion of the field covered.
 The leaf area.
 The age of the plant.
 Type of crop.
3. Soil factors:
 Soil moisture (water availability).
 Soil profile of the root system.
 Soil salinity.
 ROOTS ZONE AS A DYNAMIC
ENVIRONMENT
The roots are the supply line of the plant
needs from the soil.
Active and passive processes are involved
in nutritional supply.
The soil acidity has great importance in
nutritious absorption (pH).
 THE ROOTS DEPOSITIONS

The roots provides the micro organisms with

certain components that are essential for it:
 Carbon C – by the roots breathing.
 Nitrogen N – by fixation or other ways.
 Passive exudates – Sugar, Amino Acids,
Fatty and Nuclear Acids.
 Active exudates – Proteins,
Polysaccharides.
 WATER MANAGEMENT

Most of the nutrition is available in the

water solution.

This fact indicates the importance of

scheduled and sufficient irrigation.
 WHAT ARE THE INFLUENCERS?
• Soil type.
• Soil structure.
• Soil compaction
• Soil moisture.
• Cultivation practices.
• Plant’s roots.
• Irrigation system flow rate

52
PERCOLATION – INFILTRATION RATE

 Sand / Gravel soils - 25- 200 mm/h.

 Silt / loam - fine texture – 4-7 mm/h.

 Clay / loam * - 5-10 mm/h.

53
 Water Holding Capacity

highlights the Soil water reservoir for

plants at the end of the rainy season
regardless the volume of precipitation
during the wet season.
SOIL SALINITY
The higher the concentration of salts in the soil solution, the greater the electrical
current that can be passed through it. Therefore, the electrical conductivity (EC) of the
saturation extract is used as an indicator of soil salinity.
Rates of soil classification in terms of salinity and levels considered critical to assess
tolerance of cultures to excess salts are based on the
electrical conductivity of the
saturation extract (ECe) at 25°C.
In the past, the unit used to
measure the EC was mmhos/cm
(milimohs per centimeter), but
today the unit used is dS/m
(deciSiemens per meter).

1dS/m = 1mmhos/c = 1 mS/cm = 100 mS/m.

High soil salinity is typical of low rainfall level.
Impact of salinity on yield : field crops
Effect of salinity on mango
SOIL PH
The soil pH is a measure of the acidity or basicity (alkalinity) in soils. pH is defined as
the negative logarithm (base 10) of the activity of hydronium ions (H+ or, more
precisely, H3O+aq) in a solution.
In water, it normally ranges
from 1 to 14, with 7 being
neutral.
A pH below 7 is acidic and
above 7 is basic.
Soil pH is considered a master
variable in soils as
it controls many chemical
processes that take place.
It specifically affects plant
nutrient availability by
controlling the chemical
forms of the nutrient.
The optimum pH range for
most plants is between 5.5
and 7.0; however many plants
have adapted and thrive at pH
values outside this range.
SOIL REQUIREMENT

A well drained, deep, loamy soil having adequate aeration (10 to 12%) with a
ground water table below 1.5 to 2.0 m from soil surface, a bulk density of 1.4
g/cm3 and an available water holding capacity of 15% (15 cm of water per
meter depth of soil) or more is considered optimal.

Chemical constraints in the soils, such as acidity and low fertility, are
relatively easy to correct or control by means of the precise nutrients and
acid injection option offered by the drip irrigation system.

Although poor physical properties of soil are more difficult to ameliorate,

and are widely accepted as a limiting factor in crop growth, drip irrigation is
able to counter them by means of precise control of irrigation quantification,
frequency and scheduling.
1.3 The Plant
THE PLANT
 An Organism specialized in capturing the Solar
energy and converting it into Biomass and
Oxygen.

 Photosynthesis
PHOTOSYNTHESIS

radiation
Why & How does it work?
STOMATA CONTROL

 The Stomata response to the environment – Soil

Moisture and all Atmospheric conditions.
 Stomata closure,
Stops water loses
Stops Photosynthesis
Stops the evaporative cooling
affect.

 We can affect Stomata closure by controlling the

soil moisture in the Root Zone
THE WATER ROLE

Photosynthesis- Fixing the solar Radiation as carbohydrates- Sugar, the

plant energy blocks.
Nutrients uptake- of the essential minerals from the soil solution to all the
metabolic sites
Evaporative Cooling- keeping the canopy temperature at a safe level-
avoiding reversible & irreversible damage to the plant
tissues.

The Goal Maximize the mass flow from Soil through the plant to the
surrounding environment. (when stress is not
advantageous)
WATER FLOW VELOCITY

 The Free Energy Gradient can develop

pumping power of Hundreds of Bars.
 This power delivers water to the top of the
Sequoia trees, >100m.
 Water deficiency will first utilize
the plant water reservoir.(fruit, leaf)
 Plant protective mechanism- Stomata
Evapotranspiration
The sum of Evaporation from the soil surface and the
Transpiration of water from the plant to the atmosphere as
vapor
What drives the Transpiration?
Atmosphere –700 to –1200 bar

• Water potential gradient: Leaf –15 to –25 bar

(Soil moisture, RH, Temperature)

• Solar Radiation
• Wind (removing boundary layers)
Stem –5 to –15 bar

Soil –0.1 to –0.3 bar

 Water potential in the soil & plant
• Soil moisture declines
8mm
irrigation
• Stomata closure precedes every day.
• Shorter photosynthesis
• Increase leaf temperature at mid-day

ETc- 2mm ETc-2mm ETc- 2mm ETc- 4mm

Uptake- 2mm Uptake- 1.5mm Uptake -1mm Uptake 0.5mm

Day 1 Day 2 Day 3 Day 4

Soil mineral content and Nutrient availability.
Soil Analysis defines the content of most major essential
minerals and can evaluate the nutrients availability.
Nutrients are available to plants only when in the inorganic
dissolved phase in the Soil solution.
• No nutrient uptake in dry soils.
• Reduction in soil moisture reduces Nutrient availability
• P>K>N

Bulk soil
The depletion zone
78
 The Soil role
A porous media with Physical & Chemical properties which
affects:

• Water holding capacity.

• Water Hydraulic conductivity.
• Mineral Content and nutrients
availability

The Goal- exploit the soil

characteristics, and overcome
its limitations.
 THE WATER CONSUMPTION OF CROPS
CONSISTS
MAINLY OF TWO COMPONENTS

Evaporation from the soil surface.

Transpiration of water through millions of

stomata in the leaves.

The water consumption of a crop is called:

“Evapo-transpiration”.
EVAPORATION PAN
An evaporation pan is used to hold water for observations aimed at
determining the quantity of evaporation at a given location. Such pans are of
varying sizes and shapes, the most commonly used being circular. The best
known of the pans is the "Class A" evaporation pan. Often the evaporation
pans are automated with water level sensors and a small weather station is
located nearby.
A cylinder with a diameter of 47.5 in (120.7 cm) and a depth of 10 in (25 cm).
The pan rests on a carefully leveled, wooden base and is often enclosed by a chain
link fence to prevent animals drinking from it.

Evaporation is measured daily at the same time as the depth of water evaporated
from the pan. The measurement day begins with the pan filled to exactly 2 in (5 cm)
from the pan top. 24 hours later, the amount of water needed to refill the pan to
exactly 5 cm (2 in) from its top is measured.

If precipitation occurs in the 24-hour period, it is taken into account in calculating

the daily evaporation.

If the precipitation that occurred is greater than the pan capacity, the excess water
should be emptied and the level of water in the pan should be reset to enable
measurement in the next 24 hours.

The Class A Evaporation Pan is not usable on days with rainfall events of more
than the pan capacity.

Evaporation cannot be measured in a Class A pan when the pan's water surface is
frozen.
Potential Evapotranspiration- ETP/ET0
The evapotranspiration of a uniform short green healthy crop
completely shading the ground with adequate water status in
the soil profile.

• Class “A” evaporation pan.

• Standard unit (Pan size, net cover,
•height, location.

• FAO Penman Montheis equation

What inhibits the transpiration?

Water deficit
Low Soil water potential and/or Soil Hydraulic Conductivity
lower than the plant uptake

Extreme above ground environmental conditions.

• Heat, Hot winds – Stomata shuts off.
Weakened Canopy by Malnutrition and or by Pests
• Too low LAI – insufficient leaf area to transpire.
 Crop Evapotranspiration- ETc
The actual water requirement of a fully watered crop.
Kc- Crop Factor.
Evolution background ( wet/arid, drought resistance..)

ETc=ETO X Kc- crop factor

Kc Values - 0.5-1.2

Lisimiter- a scientific tool to

accurately measure ETc
CROP water requirement: tomato open field

Fruit growth and maturity

harvest

Flowering and fruit set

vegetative

No days 20 20 20 40 total 100

kc 0.2 0.6 0.9 0.8
CROP water requirement: tomato open field

Fruit growth and maturity

harvest

Flowering and fruit set

vegetative

No days 20 20 20 40 total 100

kc 0.2 0.6 0.9 0.8

ETo 5.8 5.8 5.6 6.3

mm/d
CROP water requirement: tomato open field

Fruit growth and maturity

harvest

Flowering and fruit set

vegetative

No days 20 20 20 40 total 100

kc 0.2 0.6 0.9 0.8

ETo 5.8 5.8 5.6 6.3

mm/d
1.2 3.5 5 5.0 Liter/m2/day
ETc mm/d
CROP water requirement: tomato open field

Fruit growth and maturity

harvest

Flowering and fruit set

vegetative

No days 20 20 20 40 total 100

kc 0.2 0.6 0.9 0.8

ETo 5.8 5.8 5.6 6.3

mm/d Liter/m2/day
1.2 3.5 5 5.0
ETc mm/d
l./m2/phase 24 l. 70 100 200 =394l./m2
WATER BUDGETING

Calculate the daily water ration to be returned to the crop by tracking daily
additions and losses of water and balancing them. The losses are due to crop
water use and leach (percolation) requirements. The additions are due to
irrigation and rainfall.

The objective of water budgeting is to maintain soil moisture near the

optimum level by keeping track of crop water use and then irrigating to
replace the water used. Knowledge of crop water use is essential to water
budgeting.
EVTc = EVTo * Kc

Calculation of the required irrigation time according to reference

evapotranspiration:
EXAMPLE

The crop coefficient (Kc) is 0.8. If the EVTo, either measured by

means
of an evaporation pan or calculated with the Penman-Monteith
equation,
is 7.5 mm/day, then the crop will be using:

EVTc = 7.5 * 0.8 = 6 mm/day

Daily water usage of 4 crops per crop development stage over a growing season
THE PENMAN-MONTEITH EQUATION
The Penman-Monteith equation (after Howard Penman and John Monteith) predicts
net evapotranspiration (EVT), requiring as input: daily mean temperature, wind
speed, relative humidity and solar radiation.

The Penman-Monteith equation is increasingly common as evaporation evaluation

method nowadays, also due to the use of meteorological stations in agricultural
projects.

The United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) standard methods for
modeling evapotranspiration use the Penman-Monteith equation.
GLOSSARY
Crop coefficient (Kc): The ratio of evapotranspiration (EVT) to reference
evapotranspiration (EVTo) for a given crop when growing in large fields under
optimum growing conditions.

Crop factor: The ratio of evapotranspiration (EVT) to pan evaporation (Eo) for a crop
of a given age, in a certain growth phase, with a certain canopy size, in a certain
climatic zone.

Pan coefficient (kp): The ratio of reference evapotranspiration (EVTo) to pan

evaporation (Eo) for the same period.

Pan evaporation (Eo): The depth of water that evaporates from an evaporation pan
during a certain period in mm/day or mm/month
THANKYOU