DEPARTMENT OF

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
SEMESTER : VII
SUBJECT : CAD-CAM-CAE
CHAPTER : COMPUTER GRAPHICS AND
TECHNIQUES FOR GEOMETRIC
MODELING
MODULE : 1.2

PRESENTED BY: Asst.Prof. Maneesh Kanujiya

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COMPUTER GRAPHICS
LEARNING OBJECTIVES:-
 To familiarize with basic concepts Non-parametric representation
 To familiarize with basic concepts Parametric representation
 To familiarize with basic concepts Synthetic curves
 To familiarize with basic concepts Hermite cubic splines
 To familiarize with basic concepts Bezier curve
 To familiarize with basic concepts B-spline curve
 To familiarize with basic concepts Surface modeling

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ARMIET/BE/SEM-VII/CAD-CAM-CAE/
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Contents
1. Introduction
2. Parametric representation of curves and
surfaces
3. Synthetic Curves
4. Solid Modeling

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 MODULE 01
COMPUTER GRAPHICS AND
TECHNIQUES FOR GEOMETRIC
MODELING

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Curves:-
• Geometric description of curves defining an object can be tackled
in several ways. A curve can be described by arrays of coordinate
data or by an analytic equation.
• The coordinate array method is impractical for obvious reasons.
The storage required can be excessively large. and the computation
to transform the data from one form to another is cumbersome. In
addition, the exact shape of the curve is not known, thus impairing
exact computations such as the intersections of curves and the
physical properties of objects--for example volume calculations.
• From a design point of view, it becomes difficult to redesign shapes
of existing objects via the coordinate array method.
• Analytic equations of curves provide designers with information
such as the effect of data points on curve behavior, control,
continuity, and curvature.

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Representation of Curves:

• Two types of representation are parametric and non-parametric

representation.

1. Non-parametric representation: - In non-parametric

representation, the curve is represented as a relationship between x, y
and z also it present in the form of: f(x, y, z)=0.

Example- ax2 + by2 + 2kxy + 2gx + 2hy + c = 0 …

(Circle)

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 Limitations of Non-Parametric
Representation of Curves:

The non-parametric representation (explicit as well as

implicit) of curves are not suitable for CAD applications due
to the following limitations:
• Due to one-to-one relationship between the coordinates x, y
and z of the point, the explicit non parametric representation
cannot be used for representing closed curves like circles
and multi-valued curves like ellipses, parabolas, hyperbolas.
• If the straight line is vertical or near vertical, its slope 'm' is
infinity or very large value. Such values are difficult to
handle in computation.
• The implicit non-parametric representation of curves
requires solving of simultaneous equations, which is highly
inconvenient and lengthy.
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2. Parametric representation: -
Parametric representation of curves overcomes all difficulties
of non-parametric representation. In parametric representation,
each point on a curve is expressed not as the relationships
between X, Y, Z but as a function of independent parameter 'u'.
The parameter 'u' acts as a local coordinate for the points on
the curve.

• P(u) = [x(u), y(u), z(u)], (umin ≤ u ≤ umax)

• Note-Non-parametric form of a circle: x2+y2=r2, parametric form: P(u)=[r cos
2πu, r sin 2πu], 0≤u≤1.
Advantages of Parametric Representation of Curves
• It can be easily used for representating closed and multivalued curves
• It replaces slopes by tangent vectors.
• For curves such as conies and cubics, the parametric representation uses
polynomials rather than equations involving roots.
• It is suitable for partial curves. Therefore. parametric representation is more
suitable and attractive for CAD applications.
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Types of curves: -

• There are two types of curves that can be represented parametrically:

analytic and synthetic.
• Analytic curves :- Analytic curves are defined as those that can
described by analytic equations such as lines, circles, and conics.
• Synthetic curves :- Synthetic curves are the ones that are described
by sets of data points (control points) such as splines and Bezier
curves.

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Synthetic curves
• Analytic curves are usually not sufficient to meet the geometric design
requirements of mechanical parts. Products such as car bodies, ship
hulls, airplane wings, propeller blades, shoe insoles, and bottles are a
few examples that require free-form, or synthetic, curves and surfaces.

• The need for synthetic curves in design arises when a curve is

represented by a collection of measured data points. Mathematically,
synthetic curves represent the problem of constructing a smooth curve
that passes through given data points. Therefore, the typical form of
these curves is a polynomial.

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 Continuity: -
Various continuity requirements can be specified at the data points to impose various
degrees of smoothness upon the resulting curve.
Zero-order continuity (C0): - Zero-order continuity is a position-continuous curve.
• Same point
• Deferent tangent
• Deferent center of curvature of curves at contact.
First-order continuity (C1): First-order continuity is a same tangent of curves.
• Same point
• Same tangent
• Deferent center of curvature of curves at contact.
Third-order continuity (C2): Third-order continuity is a curvature-continuous
curves.
• Same point
• Same tangent
• Same center of curvature of curves at contact.
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Approaches of Generation of Synthetic Curves:
There are two approaches of generation of synthetic curves:
1. Interpolation
2. Approximation
Interpolation: In interpolation the curve passes through all the data
points.
Approximation: Approximation tries to fit a smoother curve which may
be close to the data points but may not pass through each of the data
points.

Interpolation Approximation
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Types of Synthetic curves: -

• Hermite cubic splines

• Bezier curves
• B-spline curves

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Hermite cubic splines:
The name splines are drawn from the traditional drafting tool ‘spline’ or
‘French curves’ the cubic splines use cubic polynomials for their parametric
representation.

General form of parametric equation in any of X, Y and Z direction:

P(u) = au3 + bu2+ cu +d (0 ≤ u ≤ 1)

Two data points P0 and P1 at the ends and

Two tangent vectors P0’ andARMIET/BE/SEM-VII/CAD-CAM-CAE/
P1’ at these points.
COMPUTER GRAPHICS
Determination of Polynomial Coefficients:
Hermite cubic spline is drawn by using two end points of curve and the two
tangent vectors at these points. Hence, polynomial coefficients can be
determined by knowing these two end points and the tangent vectors at
these end points.
Tangent vector at any
point P(u):

Point and tangent vector

at u = 0:

(a)
Hermite cubic
spline curve

(b)
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 Point and tangent
vector at u = 1:

Boundary conditions for Hermite Cubic Spline Curve:

Combining Equations (a), (b), (c) and (d), the boundary conditions for
Hermite cubic spline curve in matrix form can be written as,

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Polynomial Coefficient for Hermite cubic spline curve:
Solving matrix equation (e), the polynomial coefficients a, b, c and d are
given by,

(f)

(g
)

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General parametric eqution for Hermitz cubic
spline curve:
From equation (a),

(
h
)

Substituting Equation (g) in Equation (h), the parametricequation for

Hermite cubic spline curve can be written as,

(i
)

Equation (i) describes the Hermite cubic spline curve in terms of two
end pointsP0, P1, and theirARMIET/BE/SEM-VII/CAD-CAM-CAE/
tangent vectors P0’, P1’.
COMPUTER GRAPHICS
Control of Hermite Cubic Spline Curve:
The shape of Hermite cubic spline curve can be controlled by:
•Changing its end points
•Its tangent vectors

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 Example: (MU - May 18)
The Hermit cubic spline curve has the end points P0 (1, 1) and P1 (7, 4). The
tangent vector for end P0 is defined by the line between P0 and another point
P2 (8, 7) whereas the tangent vector for end P1 is defined by the line between P1
and point P2 (8,7). Plot the curve for the points at the value of u = 0, 0.2, 0.4,
0.6, 0.8 and 1.0.

Solution steps
Given: P0 = (1, 1).; P1= (7, 4), ; P2= (8,7).
P0x=1, P1x=7, P2x=8
P0y=1 P1y=4 P2y=7
To Find: Plot the curve for the points at the value of u = 0, 0.2, 0.4, 0.6, 0.8
and 1.0.
Solution:
1. Equation for X-coordinates
The tangent P0’ and P1’ at end points P0 and P1 is,
P0x’ = P2x – P0x (final Point-Initial point)
P0x’= 8 - 1 = 7
P1x’ = P1x – P2x
P1x’= 7 - 8= -1
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The parametric equation for X-coordinates of Hermite cubic spline,

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1. Equation for Y-coordinates
The tangent P0’ and P1’ at end points P0 and P1 is,
P0y’ = P2y – P0y (final Point-Initial point)

P0y’= 7 - 1 = 6
P1y’ = P1y – P2y
P1y’= 4 - 7= -3
The parametric equation for Y-coordinates of Hermite cubic spline,

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 Parametric equations for
Hermite cubic spline:
Px(u)= -6u3+5u2+7u+1
0≤ u≤1
Py(u)= -3u +6u+1
3
……(a)
Points on Hermite cubic spline:
Using equation (a) five points (u= 0, 0.2, 0.4, 0.6, 0.8, and 1) on the
curve are calculated.

u 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1

Px(u) 1 2.553 4.216 5.7 6.728 7

Py(u) 1 2.176 3.208 3.952 4.264 4

(x, y) (1, (2.553, (4.216, (5.7, (6.728, (7,

1) 2.176) 3.208) 3.952) 4.264) 4)
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ARMIET/BE/SEM-VII/CAD-CAM-CAE/
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 Bezier Curve
• A Bezier curve is defined by a set of data points. The curve may
interpolate or extrapolate the data points. Some CAD systems offer both
options, others offer the interpolation version only. In both cases, the data
points are used to control the shape of the resulting curves.
• The shape of the Bezier curve is controlled by its defining points.
Tangent vectors are not used in the curve development as is the case with
the cubic spline. This allows the designer a much better feel for the
relationship between input (points) and output (curve).
• The order or the degree of Bezier curve is variable and is related to the
number of points defining it. n + 1 points define a n th degree curve, which
permits higher-order continuity.
• This is not the case for cubic splines, where the degree is always cubic
for a spline segment.
• The data points of a Bezier curve are called control points.

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∙ They form the vertices of what is called the control or characteristic
polygon, which uniquely defines the curve shape. Only the first and the
last control points or vertices of the polygon actually lie on the curve.
∙ The other vertices define the order, derivatives, and shape of the curve.
The curve is also always tangent to the first and last polygon segments. In
addition, the curve shape tends to follow the polygon shape.
∙ These three observations should enable the user to sketch or predict the
curve shape once its control points are given. The figure shows that the
order of defining the control points changes the polygon definition, which
changes the resulting curve shape. The arrow shown on each curve shows
its parametrization direction.

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Parametric equation for Bezier curve:
The parametric equation for a Bezier curve with (n+1) data points passing
through the point P0 and Pn can be written as,

……(a)

……(b)

From equation (a) it is seen that unlike Hermite cubic spline which is
cubic polynomial Bezier curve for (n+1) data points is nth degree
polynomials.
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 Characteristics of Bezier Curve:
• The Bezier curve does not use tangent vectors for controlling its shape.
• The shape of Bezier curve is controlled by number of data points.
• This gives better flexibility in controlling the shape of the curve.
• The Bezier curve with (n - 1) data points is defined by the polynomial
of n degree.
• The Bezier curve is symmetric with respect to 'u' and (1 – u). This
means the sequence of control points (data points) can be reversed
without changing the shape of the curve.
• Each control point P; (P0, P1, P2, ... Pn, ) is most influential on the curve
shape at u = i/n. For exam in case of Bezier curve with four control
points, the control points P0, P1, P2 and P3 are most influential the curve
shape at u= 0,1/3, 2/3, and 1 respectively.
• A closed Bezier curve can be generated by closing its characteristic
polygon i.e. choosing P0, and Pn , to be coincident.
• The flexibility of Bezier curve increases with increase in number of
control points.

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Example: [MU - Dec. 18]
Plot the Bezier curve having the end points P0 (1, 1) and P3 (3, 1). The other
control points are P1 (2, 1) and P2 (4, 3). Also find the mid-point of the curve.

Given: P0 = (1, 1), P1= (2, 1), P2= (4, 3), P3= (3, 1)
Parametric equation for Bezier curve:
The parametric equation for Bezier curve can be written as,

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Equation for X coordinates:

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Equation for Y
coordinates:

Final parametric equations for Bezier curve:

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 Coordinates of points on curve at (u= 0, 0.25, 0.5, 0.75, 1.0)

u 0 0.25 0.5 0.75 1

Px(u 1 1.875 2.75 3.25 3

)

Py(u 1 1.281 1.75 1.84 1

)

(x, y) (1, (1.875, (2.75, (3.25, (3,

1) 1.281) 1.75) 1.84) 1)

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 B-Spline Curve
• B-spline curves provide another effective method, besides Bezier, of
generating curves defined by data points. In fact, B-spline curves are
the proper and powerful generalization of Bezier curves. In addition to
sharing most of the characteristics of Bezier curves, they enjoy some
other unique advantages.
• They provide local control of the curve shape as opposed to global
control by using blending functions which provide local influence.
They also provide the ability to separate the curve degree from the
number of data points that defines it.
• B-spline curves can interpolate or approximate a set of given data
points. Interpolation is useful in displaying design or engineering
results such as stress or displacement distribution in a part, while
approximation is good to design free from curves. Interpolation is also
useful if the designer has measured data points which must lie on the
resulting curve. This section covers only B-spline curves as used for
approximation.

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∙ In contrast to Bezier curves, the theory of B-spline curves separates the
degree of the resulting curve from the number of the given control
points. While four control points can always produce a cubic Bezier
curve, they can generate a linear, quadratic, or cubic B-spline curve.
∙ This flexibility in the degree of the resulting curve is achieved by
choosing the basis (blending) functions of B-spline curves with an
additional degree of freedom that does not exist in Bernstein
polynomials. These basis functions are the B-splines; thus the name B-
spline curves.

Local control of B-
spline curve
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Effect of the degree of B-spline curve on its shape

Effect of point multiplicity of B-spline

curve on its shape
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Comparison between Hermite cubic spline curve, Bezier curve and B-
spline curve. [May18]

Sr. No. Parameters Hermite Bezier curve B-spline curve

1 Degree of Hermite cubic spline is always Bezier curve with B-spline curve with
Polynomial. represented by polynomial of (n + 1) data points is (n + 1) data points is
degree three'. represented by represented by
polynomial of nth polynomial of any
degree. degree up to 'n'.

2 Relation between In Hermite cubic spline In Bezier curve, the In B-spline curve, the
Number of data curve ,the degree of degree of polynomial degree of polynomial is
points and Degree polynomial is independent of depends upon the independent of the
of Polynomial. the number of data points. number of data points. number of data points.

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Sr. No. Parameters Hermite Bezier curve B-spline curve

3 Data required for For drawing Hermite cubic For drawing Bezier curve, For drawing B-spline
Drawing curve. spline curve, two data points two data points at ends curve, two data points at
at ends and two tangent while one or more control ends while one or more
vectors at ends are required. points in between are control points in
required. between are required.

4 Control of Shape In Hermite cubic spline In Bezier curve, the shape In B-spline curve, the
of curve. curve, the shape of curve is of curve is controlled by shape of curve is
only controlled by tangent control points. Whenever a controlled by control
vectors at the ends. Hence, single control point is points. Whenever a
the control of the shape of moved, it affects entire single control point is
curve is not very convenient. curve. moved, it affects only
local portion of the
curve.

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 Surface Modeling
• Shape design and the representation of complex objects such as car, ship, and
airplane bodies as well as castings cannot be achieved utilizing the curves. In
such cases, surfaces must be utilized to describe objects precisely and
accurately.
• We create surfaces, and then we use them to cut and trim solid features and
primitives to obtain the models of the complex objects. Surface creation
usually begins with data points or curves.
• Surface creation on CAD/CAM systems usually requires curves as a start. A
surface might require two boundary curves, as in the case of a ruled surface
that we cover in this chapter.
• All curves can be used to generate surfaces. In order to visualize surfaces on a
computer screen, a mesh, say m n in size, is usually displayed. The mesh size
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surfaces of revolutions with mesh sizes of 4 x 4 and 20X20. It should be
mentioned that a finer mesh size for a surface does not improve its
mathematical representation; it only improves its visualization. Finally,
some CAD/CAM systems do not permit their users to delete curves used
to create surfaces unless the latter are deleted first.

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ARMIET/BE/SEM-VII/CAD-CAM-CAE/
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 Advantages of Surface Modeling:

• The complex objects such as automotive bodies, aircraft bodies, ship bodies,
castings, and dies which cannot be modeled by wire-frame modeling can be
effectively modeled by surface modeling
• The surface models provide better visualization as compared to the wire-frame
models.
• The surface model of an object is more complete and less ambiguous than its
wire-frame model.
• With the surface models, it is possible to calculate the properties such as mass
and volume.
• Due to richness of information, surface models are suitable for engineering
applications such as: generating cross-sections, interference detections, finite
element modeling and NC tool path generation.
• Shading of an object is possible in surface modeling
• The surface modeling is considered as an extension of
• Note- A wire-frame model can be extracted from a surface model by deleting all
surface entities.

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 Limitations of Surface
Modeling:
∙ The surface models are more complex, and hence require more CPU
time and computer memory for storage compared to wire-frame
models.
∙ The surface modeling requires more training and mathematical
background on the part of the user.
∙ Sometimes, surface models are awkward to create and require
manipulations of wire-frame entities.
∙ For example, a surface with holes in it may have to be created with
the help of wire-frame entities.

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Representation of Surfaces:
The representation of surfaces is an extension of the representation of
curves. The surfaces can be represented mathematically by two methods:
Non-parametric and Parametric Representation.
Types of The Surface Entities:
The surface entities are of two types:
1. Analytic Surface
a. Plane surface
b. Ruled surface
c. Tabulated surface
d. Surface of revolution
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1. Synthetic surface
a. Hermite Bi-cubic surface
b. Bezier surface
c. B-spline surface
d. Coons surface(patch)
e. Fillet surface
f. Offset surface

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Analytic surfaces: The surface entities which are defined by the analytic equations
are known as analytic surfaces.
Examples of analytic surfaces: Plane surface, ruled surface, tabulated surface, and
surface of revolution.
Synthetic surfaces: The surface entities which are defined by the set of data points
are known as synthetic surfaces. The synthetic surfaces are needed when a surface is
represented by a collection of data points. The synthetic surfaces are represented by
the polynomials.
Examples of synthetic surfaces: Bezier surface, B. spline surface, coons patch,
fillet surface, and offset
Applications of synthetic surfaces: The synthetic surfaces are used for
representing profiles of: car bodies, ship hulls, airplane wings, propeller blades, etc.

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Types of Analytic Surfaces, used in Surface Modeling
The various types of analytic surfaces, used in surface modeling are
discussed below.
1. Plane surface
2. Ruled surface
3. Tabulated surface
4. Surface of revolution

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Plane surface: A plane surface is defined by three non-
coincident point.

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Ruled surface: [SPPU-May15]
A ruled (lofted) surface is formed by two boundary curves (rails) which are
wire frame entities. The corresponding end point curves are joined by straig
between is obtained by linear interpolation. This is the linear surface and it does
not permit any twist.

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Tabulated surface:
A tabulated surface is generated by translating a planer curve
through a certain distance along the direction perpendicular to
the plane of the curve.

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•Surface of revolution: A surface of revolution is an
axisymmetric surface generated by rotating a planer wireframe
entity in a space about the axis of symmetry through a certain
angle.

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LEARNING OUTCOMES

To able to explain Non-parametric representation

To able to explain Parametric representation
To able to explain Synthetic curves
To able to explain Hermite cubic splines
To able to explain Bezier curve
To able to explain B-spline curve
To able to explain Surface modeling

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References:
1. CAD/ CAM, Theory & Practice, Ibrahim Zeid, R. Sivasubramanian,
Tata McGraw Hill Publications
2. CAD/CAM Principles and Applications, P. N. Rao, Tata McGraw Hill
Publications
3. Piegl, Les; Tiller, Wayne (1997). The NURBS Book (2. ed.). Berlin:
Springer. ISBN 3-540-61545-8

Links for online NPTEL/SWAYAM courses:

1. https://nptel.ac.in/courses/112/102/112102101/
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=A0qWBDm6Nok
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fwzYuhduME4
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qFwOg9M9s2U
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EPwOgh-M_ok&t=21s

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Thank
You
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