Lecture 2:

Classification of Research
Topics:
Criteria for classification
Types of research
 Which type of research?
Primary practical
research Secondary Research
 Types of research

Primary practical research Secondary research

• The research you do • Reviews
yourself in a lab or in • Critiques of published
the field papers
Classification of Primary
Research
Primary research may be
classified into 3 broad
categories based on:

1.Methods used
2.Purpose of the research
3.Type of data sought
Classification by Methods
Basically 3 types of research fall
under this category:
I. Descriptive research
(statistical research)
II.Correlation research
III.Causal-comparative
research
Descriptive research (also called statistical
research)
• may be defined as ‘a scientific method of
investigation that involves data collection and
analysis in order to determine the current
attributes, conditions, trends OR
characteristics of a given problem’.
• It determines and reports the way things are;
it attempts to describe things such as
characteristics, behaviour, attributes,
values, etc.
• Although Descriptive research provides data
about the population or universe being studied
it can only describe the "who, what, when,
where and how" of a population, situation or
occurrence or phenomenon, not what caused
it.
Descriptive research cont….

• descriptive research is used when the objective

is to provide a systematic description that is as
factual and accurate as possible.
• It provides the number of times something occurs
(frequency), lends itself to statistical calculations
such as determining the average number of
occurrences or central tendencies (descriptive
statistics).
• Limitation: Cannot establish a causal relationship
between variables.

• The two most commonly used methods or

research designs in descriptive research are:

1)Observation
2) Surveys
Observation method
• A primary method of collecting
data by human, mechanical,
electrical or electronic
means.

• The researcher may or may

not have direct contact or
communication with the
subjects whose characteristics
or attributes or behavior are
being recorded

– About six different categories of

observation methods are
recognized
Categories of observation methods
Participant and non-participant observation depending
on whether the researcher chooses to be part of the
situation s/he is studying (e.g. studying social
interaction of tour groups by being a tour participant
would be participant observation)
Obtrusive and unobtrusive observation, depending on
whether the subjects being studied can detect the
observation (e.g. hidden microphones or cameras
observing behavior and doing garbage audits to
determine consumption are examples of unobtrusive
observation)
Observation in natural or contrived settings, whereby
the behavior is observed (usually unobtrusively) when
and where it is occurring, while in the contrived setting
the situation is recreated to speed up the behavior (e.g.
studying flight response of mosquitoes to odor baits
in a wind tunnel)
Categories of observation methods …………
Disguised and non-disguised observation: depending
on whether the subjects being observed are aware that
they are being studied or not. In disguised observation, the
researcher may pretend to be someone else, e.g. "just"
another tourist participating in the tour group, as opposed
to the other tour group members being aware that s/he is
a researcher.

Structured and unstructured observation: uses

guidelines, or a checklist for attributes to be recorded (e.g.
using a check list to determine the presence or absence of
species)

Direct and indirect observation, depending on whether

the attribute, e.g., behaviour, is being observed as it
occurs or after the fact, (use of video recording - cctv
 Observation continued……

Merit/advantage of observation method

• Records actual characteristics, attributes,
behavior etc, (not what people say they saw,
said, did or believe they will say/do.
• Reliable especially when dealing with behavior
that might be subject to certain social
pressure (e.g., people deem themselves to be
tolerant when their actual behavior may be
much less so) or conditioned responses (e.g.,
people say they value nutrition, but will pick
foods they know to be fatty or sweet),
• observation technique can provide greater
insights than an actual survey method
 Observation continued……
Demerit/disadvantage
• does not provide any insights into what the
person may be thinking or what might
motivate a given behavior/comment. This
type of information can only be obtained by
asking people directly or indirectly.

CAUTION! When people are being observed,

whether they are aware of it or not, ethical
issues arise that must be considered by the
researcher.
(e.g. use of cameras and microphones to
gather information about verbal and non-
verbal behavior of humans may be an invasion
or abuse of their privacy).
Survey Method

• Most surveys set out to find “what is

there” (in biosciences = usually
conducted as a preliminary study
method to know how the situation is)
• These may be surveys of individuals,
species, populations etc, or surveys of
people’s opinions, behavior, etc
• involves collection of primary data about
subjects (individuals, species,
populations etc), usually by selecting a
representative sample of the population
or universe under study
 Survey……
• very popular in social sciences (or where
interest is people’s opinions) since many
different types of information can be
collected in a short time & with minimal
effort
• allows for standardization and uniformity
both in the questions asked and in the method
of approaching subjects, making it easier to
compare and contrast answers by respondent
group.
• also ensures higher reliability
 • General features
– Large-scale probability sampling
– Systematic Procedures: Interviews and
questionnaires
– Answers are numerically coded and
analyzed with the aid of statistical
software
– Used extensively for both descriptive
and explanatory purposes

02/18/2022
Research questions appropriate for a survey
• Ask many things, measure many variables
and test several hypotheses in a single
survey
– Behavior
– Attitudes/beliefs/opinions
– Expectations
– Self-classification
– Knowledge

16
 Steps in conduction of a survey
• Step 1 Questionnaire design
– Develop hypotheses
– Decide on type of survey
(mail, interview, telephone)
– Write survey questions
– Decide on response
categories
– Design layout
• Step 2 Pilot test
– Plan how to record data
– Pilot test survey instrument
• •
Step 3 Sampling
– Decide on target population
– Get sampling frame
– Decide on sample size
– Select sample
• Step 4 Data collection
– Locate respondents
– Conduct interviews
(distribute questionnaire)
– Carefully record data
• Step 5 Data analysis
– Enter data into computers
– Recheck all data
– Perform statistical analysis
on data
Step 6 Writing up
– Describe methods and
findings in research report
– Present findings to others
for critique and evaluation
17
Merits of Surveys ….
• can be an efficient and accurate
means of determining information
about a given population (if properly
designed and implemented)
• Results can be provided relatively
quickly
• are relatively inexpensive, depending
on the sample size and method
chosen
• different types of information can
be collected in a short time & with
minimal effort
Survey methods …..
Disadvantages
1. Response error or bias.
Where, the respondent knows that s/he is
being studied, the information s/he
provides may not be valid or correct

Reason = Respondent may wish to impress

or please the researcher (e.g. by
attributing him/herself a higher income or
education level or by providing the kind of
response s/he believes the researcher is
looking for)
Disadvantages ….
2. Non-response error or bias (refusal to respond)
The respondent may be unwilling or unable to reply
can also pose a problem.
Reason:
information may be considered sensitive or
intrusive (e.g. information about income or sexual
orientation)
Or question is so specific that the respondent is
unable to answer, even though willing
(e.g. "How many times during the past month have
you thought about your raising income?")

Careful wording of the questions can help overcome

some of this error
Disadvantages …..

3. Interviewer error or bias

• interviewer can (inadvertently)
influence the response elicited
through comments made or by
stressing certain words in the
question itself.
• interviewer can also introduce bias
through facial expressions, body
language or even the clothing that is
worn
FACTS OF SCIENCE

FACTS OF SCIENCE
Response rate
An important consideration in surveys
Influenced by:
• survey method chosen,
• length of the questionnaire
• type of motivation of the respondent,
• type of questions and/or subject matter
• time of day or place,
• whether respondents were informed to
expect the survey or offered an incentive
Proper questionnaire design and question
wording can help increase response rate.
 Types of Surveys
• Data is usually collected using
questionnaires
• Surveys can be qualitative (e.g. ask
open-ended questions) or quantitative
(e.g. use forced-choice questions)
• two basic types of surveys:
1) cross-sectional surveys
2) longitudinal surveys

• (referenceTHE SURVEY METHOD

• (Source: http://www.ischool.utexas.edu/~palmquis/courses/survey.html
Data collection instruments
• Self-administrated Questionnaires
– Hand delivered
– Mail survey
– Web survey
• Interviews
Face-to-face and Telephone
– Structured interview
• The researcher asks a standard set of questions and nothing
more
– Semi-structured interview
• The researcher may follow the standard questions with one or
more individually tailored questions to get clarification or probe
a person’s reasoning
Features of descriptive research
• It studies large populations by means of sampling
(characteristics of the population inferred from a
sample of the population)
• It examines population characteristics or
variables in their current status or condition (no
manipulation)
• Normally conducted in the natural conditions of
the subjects
• Results may not be very accurate –accuracy
depends on reliability of data collection
instruments and data analysis techniques
• It is not possible to achieve control of
factors/variables
Causal-comparative Research
• Undertaken when objective is to find out
if is a cause and effect relationship
exists between variables.
• In order to determine causality, the
variable that is assumed to cause change
in the other variable(s) is held constant
and then the changes in the other
variable(s) are measured.
• This type of research is complex and the
researcher can never be completely sure
that there are no other factors
influencing the causal relationship.
Causal-comparative research……..

• two main research methods for exploring

cause-effect relationship between variables:
– Experimentation
– Simulation

• Experimentation: a highly controlled method that

allows the researcher to manipulate a specific
independent variable in order to determine what
effect this manipulation would have on another or
other dependent variable(s).
• Simulation: a method that uses a mathematical
model to recreat a situation, often repeatedly,
so that the likelihood of various outcomes can be
more accurately estimated
Experimentation
• Experimentation normally requires a researcher
to have a control group as well as an experimental
group, and that subjects/treatments be
assigned randomly to either group.
• Experiment could take place in a lab or field, (i.e.
"natural" setting as opposed to an "artificial" one)
• Laboratory expts allow a researcher to control
and/or eliminate many intervening variables
• is a conclusive research, that is primary research
in nature.
• Experimentation is a quantitative technique, but
depending on how the experiment is set up, it may
relate more to observation than direct
measurement.
Simulation
• A set of mathematical formulae are used to
simulate or imitate a real life situation.
• By changing one variable in the equation, it is
possible to determine the effect on the other
variables in the equation.
• In the hospitality and tourism industries,
computer simulation and model building is used
extremely rarely. Its use tends to be limited to
a few rare impact and forecasting studies.
• The simulation design is conclusive research
that is secondary research in nature.
Simulation is a quantitative research technique.
 Simulation
• is the imitation of some real thing, state of affairs,
or process. The act of simulating something
generally entails representing certain key
characteristics of a selected physical or abstract
system.
• is also used for scientific modeling of natural
systems or human systems in order to gain insight
into their functioning.
• can be used to show the eventual real effects of
alternative conditions and courses of action.
• Simulation is also used when the real system cannot
be engaged, because it may not be accessible, or it
may be dangerous or unacceptable to engage, or it is
being designed but not yet built, or it may
simply not exist
 Assignment (Group 2)
Discuss correlational research
CORRELATIONAL RESEARCH
Correlational Research examines the
relationship between variables. The strength
and direction of that relationship is described
by the coefficient of correlation (ranging
from +1.0 to -1.0).

• Experimental research involves the

manipulation of one or more independent
variables to see if the dependent variable is
influenced. Correlational research studies the
relationship between variables.
 APPLICATIONS OF
CORRELATION 
• Prediction
If a strong correlation exists between two variables,
performance on one variable may be used to predict
performance on the other.
 
• Assessing Consistency
For example, the correlation between music festival judges'
ratings would be a good indication of their consistency.
 
• Describing Relationships
Correlation provides useful information about the
relationships among variables. For example, what is the
relationship between certain conductor behaviors and the
attitudes of ensemble members toward rehearsal?
TYPES OF CORRELATION COEFFICIENTS

• Pearson's Product Moment Coefficient of

Correlation
We use Pearson's R when we are using continuous data
(interval or ratio, such as scores on an aptitude test)
and we can safely assume that the variables follow a
normal distribution.
Spearman's Rho Coefficient of Correlation
We use Spearman's Rho when we are using rank-
ordered data (such as chair placements or festival
rankings).
 
Biserial and Point Biserial Correlation
We use biserial and point biserial techniques when we
want to find the relationship between a continuous
variable and a dichotomous categorical variable.
PARTIAL AND MULTIPLE
CORRELATION
Partial Correlation is used to determine
what correlation remains between two
variables when a third variable is eliminated.
 
Multiple Correlation involves two or more
variables and finds the best possible
weighting to yield a maximum correlation
with a single dependent variable.
 INTERPRETING A CORRELATION COEFFICIENT

• Size
Size may be evaluated by considering absolute size (generally, any correlation
between .70 to .85 would indicate a strong relationship). The size of a
correlation must be considered in relation to other correlations of the same or
similar variables. The size of a correlation must also be considered in light of
the sample size (the number of subjects participating in the study). If the
sample size is very small, even a very high correlation coefficient could be
meaningless.

• Practical Utility
It is always important to use common sense and consider the practical
importance of a correlation.
 
 
CORRELATION DOES NOT MEAN CAUSATION!
 
One of the "seven deadly sins" committed by researchers (Saslow, 1982)
 When are correlation methods
used?
• They are used to determine the extent to
which two or more variables are related
among a single group of people (although
sometimes each pair of score does not
come from one person...the correlation
between father's and son's height would
not).
There is no attempt to manipulate the
variables (random variables)
 How is correlational research
different from experimental research
?
In correlational research we do not (or at least try not to)
influence any variables but only measure them and look for
relations (correlations) between some set of variables, such as
blood pressure and cholesterol level. In experimental research, we
manipulate some variables and then measure the effects of this
manipulation on other variables; for example, a researcher might
artificially increase blood pressure and then record cholesterol
level. Data analysis in experimental research also comes down to
calculating "correlations" between variables, specifically, those
manipulated and those affected by the manipulation. However,
experimental data may potentially provide qualitatively better
information: Only experimental data can conclusively demonstrate
causal relations between variables. For example, if we found that
whenever we change variable A then variable B changes, then we
can conclude that "A influences B." Data from correlational
research can only be "interpreted" in causal terms based on some
theories that we have, but correlational data cannot conclusively
prove causality. Source: http://www.statsoft.com/textbook/stathome.html
 Correlation research asks the question:
What relationship exists?

• A correlation has direction and can be either positive or negative

(note exceptions listed later). With a positive correlation,
individuals who score high (or low) on one measure tend to score
similarly on the other measure.  The scatterplot of a positive
correlation rises. With negative relationships, an individual who
scores high on one measure tends to score low on the other (or
vise verse). The scatterplot of a negative correlation falls.
A correlation can differ in the degree or strength of the
relationship (with the Pearson product-moment correlation
coefficient that relationship is linear). Zero indicates no
relationship between the two measures and r = 1.00 or r = -1.00
indicates a perfect relationship. The strength can be anywhere
between 0 and + 1.00.  Note:  The symbol r is used to represent
the Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient for a sample. 
The Greek letter rho (r) is used for a population. The stronger the
correlation--the closer the value of r (correlation coefficient)
comes to + 1.00--the more the scatterplot will fall along a line.
 What is a research design?

• It is a framework or blue print that provides a systematic means of

data collection and analysis with the purpose of testing or verifying the
theoretical perspectives of a given study , e.g. the theoretical or
conceptual framework which leads to hypothesis testing or research
questions.
General steps involved in Descriptive Research:
 Determination of a target population
 Selection of a suitable sample (representative of the population)
 Design of data collection instruments (preparation & design of data
collection paraphernalia).
 Data collection (field- or lab-based work)
 Data analysis
 Conclusions.
Classification of research by
purpose criterion
Three main types of research
recognized:
• Basic (pure/fundamental) research
• Applied research
• Action (or strategic) research
Basic research
• Carried out to increase understanding of fundamental
principles
• End results have no direct or immediate commercial
benefits
• Can be thought of as arising out of curiosity
• In the long term it is the basis for many commercial
products and applied research
• Mainly carried out by universities
• advances fundamental knowledge about the human world
• is the source of most new scientific ideas and ways of
thinking about the world
• can be exploratory, descriptive, or explanatory; explanatory
research is the most common.
• generates new ideas, principles and theories, which may not
be immediately utilized; though are the foundations of
modern progress and development in different fields.
Basic research
• Research that is directed towards finding or
generating information that has a broad base of
application, and thus adds to the already existing
body of scientific knowledge
• Refers to studies conducted for the purpose of
generating new knowledge in order to develop new
theories and expand or refine existing ones.
• focuses on basic or fundamental structures or
issues with the aim of understanding them
• It main purpose is to seek and expand knowledge in
specific fields.
• It is normally motivated by intellectual curiosity and
the need to come up with a particular solution.
• Researchers at the center of the scientific
community conduct most of the basic research.
Basic Research ….
• It is usually (but not always) conducted under
controlled laboratory or field situations,
often using animals, plants or micro-organisms
as subjects.
• It usually has no consideration of the
practical application of the findings to actual
problems or situations.
• Mainly concerned with generalisations, to
ensure that results apply in other conditions,
populations and geographic locations outside
the initial research centre/site
• Usually long-term studies. Involves elaborate
mobilisation of funds and resources to enable
the researcher achieve reliable findings.
Basic scientific research seek answers to questions
such as:
• How did the universe begin?
• What are protons, neutrons, and electrons composed
of?
• How do trypanosomes reproduce?
• What is the specific genetic code of the fruit fly?
Since basic research studies focus on fundamental
processes or structures with the aim of
understanding them, it is mainly concerned with
generalisations, to ensure that the results apply
in other conditions, populations or geographical
locations outside the initial research centre or
site. Such studies are usually long-term and they
involve elaborate mobilisation of funds and
resources to enable the researcher achieve
reliable findings.
History of Basic Research
Historical examples in which basic research has played a vital
role in the advancement of scientific knowledge. Examples:

• Genetics and heredity: largely due to Gregor Mendel

studies on pea plants in the 1860's. and the experiments
with fruit flies by T.H. Morgan in the early 20th century.
• Structure of DNA: Using data gathered from the previous
basic research of other scientists, James Watson and
Francis Crick discovered the structural design of the DNA
molecule in 1953. Determining DNA's structure was vital to
our understanding of how DNA worked.
• Many of today's electrical devices (e.g., radios, generators
and alternators) can trace their roots to the basic research
conducted by Michael Faraday in 1831. He discovered the
principle of electromagnetic induction, that is, the
relationship between electricity and magnetism.

Each of these scientists was trying to learn about the basic

nature of the phenomena that they were studying. Only
today can we see the vast implications of their research
Applied Research
• Refers to studies conducted for the purpose of finding
solution(s) to a practical problems of the modern
world
• May also provide data to support theory, guide theory
revision or suggest development of new theory.
• applies or tests theoretical knowledge generated by
basic research and evaluates its usefulness in solving
practical problems.
• provides knowledge that is directly useful to
practitioners
• Examples of applied abounds - Applied researchers may
investigate ways to:
– improve agricultural crop production
– treat or cure a specific disease
– improve methods of controlling diseases
– improve the energy efficiency of homes, offices, or
modes of transportation
Applied Research continued
Research and Development (R&D), is an example of
applied research. It aims at developing new
products, designs, methods, procedures, etc. It is
based on innovation and creativity.
Steps in R&D studies:
• Problem identification
• Idea generation/creativity
• Application of previous research findings
(basic/pure research)
• Design and development of the new product
• Field-testing or validation stage (involves data
collection and analyses)
• Refinement and revision – based on the results
from the field-testing, compared with expected
or existing or known standards, objectives or
quality specifications
• Production and marketing (implementation of the
results)
History of applied research

• There have been many historical examples

in which applied research has had a major
impact on our daily lives.
• In many cases, the application was derived
long before scientists had a good, basic
understanding of the underlying science.
(One might envision a scientist sitting at
his lab bench, scratching his head and
saying to himself, "I know it works; I just
don't really know how it works!").
Applied Research cont…

Historical examples:
• Development of vaccination against various
diseases
– The first use of a vaccine occurred in the late
1790's. Edward Jenner developed a technique
for vaccinating people against smallpox, a
disease that once killed millions of people.
– In 1885, Louis Pasteur successfully inoculated
a patient with a rabies vaccine. More recently,
Jonas Salk developed a vaccine for polio in
1953; an oral form of the vaccine was produced
by Albert Sabin in 1961. (who developed the
recent pneumonia vaccine?)
Basic or applied research? -The Gray Zone
Distinction between the two isn’t always clear.
• One way to look at it is to ask the following
question: "How long will it be before some
practical application results from the
research ?"

- If a practical use is only a few years away, =

work can be defined as strictly applied research.

- If a practical use is still 20-50 years away, =

work is somewhat applied and somewhat basic in
nature.

If a practical use cannot be envisioned in the

foreseeable future, = work can be described as
purely basic research.
 Discussion Questions for the Classroom
Applied vs. Basic Research

1. Can our nation afford to spend millions of shillings on

research that may have no immediate practical benefits?
2. Should educational institutions concentrate on basic
research, or should they be allowed to concentrate on
research programs that might be more profitable in the
end?
3. Does industry bear a responsibility to support basic
research, since its technological and medical advances are
often the result of someone else's basic work?

Food for Thought:

– Some basic scientific research has no foreseeable practical
value other than "knowledge for knowledge's sake".
– Many technological, medical, and scientific breakthroughs
were made possible only due to the knowledge gained by prior
basic research.
 Strategic (or Action) Research
• This is research that is conducted with the
primary intention of solving a specific,
immediate and concrete problem in a local
set-up.
• E.g., an epidemiologist investigating ways of
controlling a cholera outbreak in a given
geographic area.
• Not concerned with whether the results are
generalised or applicable to any other set-
up.
• Quite useful as it provides answers to
problems that require immediate practical
solutions
CLASSIFICATION OF RESEARCH BY TYPE OF DATA
Two broad types are recognizable:
• Quantitative research and Qualitative
research

Quantitative Research: scientific method of

study or investigation that is based on the
use of numerical or quantifiable data, i.e.,
it is based on measurement of quantity or
amount and it is applicable only to
phenomena that can be expressed in terms
of quantity.
Qualitative Research is based on textual
data (non-numeric). i.e. based on non-
numeric characteristics, e.g. male, female,
Yes, No, etc
Quantitative Research
Quantitative research is based on the
following paradigms:
• any problem (phenomenon) represents a
tangible reality,
• The problem can be broken down into
smaller components which can be studied
through observable behaviour
• Each component can be studied
independently in terms of variables that
affect it
• The variables can be explained by
determining their cause-effect relationships
(the explanations lead to development of
theories derived from hypotheses and
generalisation of results)
 Methods & Techniques in
Quantitative Research
The following research designs/methods or techniques are
commonly used in quantitative research:
1. Descriptive methods – these are mainly based on survey
designs and aim to generate or improve our understanding
of events in their current conditions and thus help us
describe events as they occur in nature
2. Correlational methods- these are usually based on the
use of experimental designs and involves manipulation of
variables and use of controls. Such methods help to
establish cause-effect relationships
3. Experimental methods- these are based the use of
experimental designs and involves manipulation of
variables and the use of controls

Data Collection Instruments: Tests (surveys or

experiments), Observations, Interviews,
Questionnaires
Qualitative Research
This is a method of investigation that is based on the
use of non-numerical (textual) data.
• Qualitative paradigms
1. A problem represents a reality that involves
complex interactions of factors or variables that
cannot be isolated from each other, (thus the
problem can only be studied or investigated in a
holistic form –seek a total and complete picture
of the problem.
2. The problem can be studied by generating in-
depth and comprehensive data from a few cases
of a population (it helps to generate views or
variables that reflect peoples perceptions about
that problem
3. The problem can be understood by inter-relating
the views from people investigated because their
views represent the reality about the problem
4. The views can be inter-related to generate
conclusions which can be used to develop new
hypotheses and even theories.
Qualitative research cont…
Methods and Techniques
• Case Study method – focuses on units, groups
or a few cases of population units. It involves
use of in-depth data collection techniques and,
results are specific to the cases under
investigation
• Historical methods – focuses on past events to
understand current issues of problems. It also
uses in-depth data collection techniques.
• Participatory methods – involves active
participation of both the researcher and the
respondent in order to enhance designs, data
collection and analysis. It is commonly used in
programme management, social groups, also in
feasibility studies and, project monitoring and
evaluation studies.
Data collection techniques in
qualitative research
• Focus Group Discussion: uses specially selected
group of respondents (with homologous
characteristics). Involves open-ended discussions
among the respondents and yields in-depth data.
Number of respondents usually 8-12 people.
• Key Informant Interviews. A key informant is an
individual that posses some unique
characteristics, knowledge or holds position/rank
(not easily available in a given population). The
process involves an interview method that
generates comprehensive and detailed data.
Example: trade union leaders, supervisors, senior
managers, wardens, chiefs, Village elder, CBO
leaders, etc.
• Participant Observation, where the researcher
participates in the activities conducted by the
respondents (in order to gain an understanding of
what they experience and feel.
 Discussion Questions:

• Can our nation afford to spend millions of shillings on research

that may have no practical benefit?
• Should educational institutions concentrate on basic research, or
should they be allowed to concentrate on research programs that
might be more profitable in the end?
• Does industry bear a responsibility to support basic research,
since its technological and medical advances are often the result
of someone else's basic work?