Çengel

Boles
CHAPTER

16
Thermodynamics
Thermodynamics

of High-Speed
Gas Flow

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 16-1
Steady Flow of a Liquid
through an Adiabatic Duct

(fig.16-1)
Çengel
Boles
Thermodynamics

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 16-2
Three States of a Fluid on an h-s
Diagram
The actual state, actual stagnation state, and isentropic
stagnation state of a fluid on an h-s diagram

(Fig.16-3)
Çengel
Boles
Thermodynamics

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 16-3
Completely Arresting the Flow of an
Ideal Gas can Raise its Temperature
The temperature of an ideal gas flowing at a velocity V rises
by V2/(2CP) when it is brought to a complete stop
(Fig.16-5)
Çengel
Boles
Thermodynamics

STOP

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 16-4
Propagation of a Small Pressure
Wave Along a Duct

Çengel
Boles
Thermodynamics

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 16-5
Control Volume Moving With the
Small Pressure Wave Along a Duct

(Fig. 16-8)
Çengel
Boles
Thermodynamics

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 16-6
The Velocity of Sound
Changes With Temperature

(Fig. 16-9)
Çengel
Boles
Thermodynamics

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 16-7
The Mach Number Can Vary With Different
Temperatures Even With Equivalent Velocities

(Fig. 16-10)
Çengel
Boles
Thermodynamics

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 16-8
Throat: The Smallest Flow Area of
a Nozzle

Çengel
Boles
Thermodynamics

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 16-9
Supersonic Velocities Cannot be Obtained
by Attaching a Converging Section
We cannot obtain supersonic velocities by attaching a a converging
section to a converging nozzle. Doing so will only move the sonic cross
section farther downstream

Çengel
Boles
Thermodynamics

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 16-10
Variation of Flow Properties in Subsonic
and Supersonic Nozzles and Diffusers

(Fig. 16-17)
Çengel
Boles
Thermodynamics

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 16-11
Effect of Back Pressure on the Pressure
Distribution Along a Converging Nozzle

(Fig. 16-20)
Çengel
Boles
Thermodynamics

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 16-12
Effect of Back Pressure of a Converging
Nozzle on Mass Flow Rate and Exit Pressure
The effect of back pressure Pb on the mass flow rate m and
the exist pressure Pe of a converging nozzle
(Fig. 16-21)
Çengel
Boles
Thermodynamics

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 16-13
Variation of the Mass Flow Rate Through
a Nozzle with Inlet Stagnation Properties

(Fig. 16-22)
Çengel
Boles
Thermodynamics

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 16-14
The Effect of Back Pressure on the Flow
Through a Converging-Diverging Nozzle

(Fig.16-26)
Çengel
Boles
Thermodynamics

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 16-15
The h-s Diagram
for Flow Across a Normal Shock

(Fig. 16-29)
Çengel
Boles
Thermodynamics

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 16-16
Entropy Change Across the
Normal Shock

(Fig. 16-31)
Çengel
Boles
Thermodynamics

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 16-17
Isentropic and Actual (Irreversible)
Flow in a Nozzle
Isentropic and actual flow in a nozzle between the same inlet
state and the exit pressure

(Fig. 16-33)
Çengel
Boles
Thermodynamics

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 16-18
Schematic and h-s Diagram for the
Definition of the Diffuser Efficiency

(Fig. 16-35)
Çengel
Boles
Thermodynamics

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 16-19
The h-s Diagram for the Isentropic
Expansion of Steam in a Nozzle

(Fig. 16-37)
Çengel
Boles
Thermodynamics

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 16-20
Schematic and h-s Diagram for
Example 16-14

(Fig.16-38)
Çengel
Boles
Thermodynamics

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 16-21

Chapter Summary

• In this chapter the thermodynamic aspects of

high-speed fluid flow are examined. For high-
Çengel speed flows, it is convenient to combine the
Boles
enthalpy and the kinetic energy of the fluid into a
Thermodynamics

single term called stagnation (or total) enthalpy h0,

defined as

(kJ/kg)

The properties of a fluid at the stagnation state are

called stagnation properties and are indicated by
Third Edition the subscript zero.
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 16-22

Chapter Summary

Çengel
• The stagnation temperature of an ideal gas with
Boles constant specific heats is
Thermodynamics

which represents the temperature an ideal gas will

attain when it is brought to rest adiabatically.

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 16-23

Chapter Summary

• The (isentropic) stagnation properties of an ideal

Çengel gas are related to the static properties of the fluid
Boles
by
Thermodynamics

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 16-24

Chapter Summary

• When stagnation enthalpies are used, the

Çengel
Boles
conservation of energy equation for a single-
stream, steady-flow device can be expressed as
Thermodynamics

where h01 and h02 are the stagnation enthalpies at

states 1 and 2, respectively.

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 16-25

Chapter Summary

• The velocity at which an infinitesimally small

Çengel
Boles
pressure wave travels through a medium is the
velocity of sound (or the sonic velocity). It is
Thermodynamics

expressed as

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 16-26

Chapter Summary

Çengel
Boles • For an ideal gas the velocity of sound becomes
Thermodynamics

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 16-27

Chapter Summary

Çengel
Boles • The Mach number is the ratio of the actual velocity
of the fluid to the velocity of sound at the same
Thermodynamics

state:

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 16-28

Chapter Summary

Çengel
Boles
• The flow is called sonic when M = 1, subsonic
Thermodynamics

when M < 1, supersonic when M > 1, hypersonic

when M >> 1, and transonic when M ~ = 1.

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 16-29

Chapter Summary

Çengel
Boles • The nozzles whose flow area decreases in the flow
direction are called converging nozzles. Nozzles
Thermodynamics

whose flow area first decreases and then

increases are called converging-diverging
nozzles. The location of the smallest flow area of a
nozzle is called the throat.

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 16-30

Chapter Summary

Çengel • The highest velocity to which a fluid can be

Boles
accelerated in a convergent nozzle is the sonic
Thermodynamics

velocity. Accelerating a fluid to supersonic

velocities is only possible in converging-diverging
nozzles. In all supersonic converging-diverging
nozzles, the flow velocity at the throat is the
velocity of sound.

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 16-31

Chapter Summary

• The ratios of the stagnation to static properties for

ideal gases with con-stant specific heats can be
Çengel
Boles expressed in terms of the Mach number as
Thermodynamics

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 16-32

Chapter Summary
• When M = 1, the resulting static-to-stagnation
property ratios for the temperature, pressure, and
Çengel density are called critical ratios and are denoted
Boles by the superscript asterisk:
Thermodynamics

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 16-33

Chapter Summary

Çengel
Boles • The pressure outside the exit plane of a nozzle is
Thermodynamics

called the back pressure. For all back pressures

lower than P*, the pressure at the exit plane of the
converging nozzle is equal to P*, the Mach number
at the exit plane is unity, and the mass flow rate is
the maximum (or choked) flow rate.

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 16-34

Chapter Summary

• Under steady-flow conditions, the mass flow rate

Çengel
Boles through the nozzle is constant and can be
expressed as
Thermodynamics

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 16-35

Chapter Summary

Çengel
• The variation of flow area A through the nozzle
Boles relative to the throat area A* for the same mass
Thermodynamics

flow rate and stagnation properties of a particular

ideal gas is

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 16-36

Chapter Summary
• The parameter M* is defined as the ratio of the
local velocity to the velocity of sound at the throat
Çengel (M = 1):
Boles
Thermodynamics

It can also be expressed as

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 16-37

Chapter Summary

• In some range of back pressure, the fluid that

Çengel achieved a sonic velocity at the throat of a
Boles
converging-diverging nozzle and is accelerating to
Thermodynamics

supersonic velocities in the diverging section

experiences a normal shock, which causes a
sudden rise in pressure and temperature and a
sudden drop in velocity to subsonic levels. Flow
through the shock is highly irreversible, and thus
it cannot be approximated as isentropic.

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 16-38

Chapter Summary
The properties of an ideal gas with constant
specific heats before (subscript x) and after
(subscript y) a shock are related by
Çengel
Boles
Thermodynamics

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 16-39

Chapter Summary

Çengel • The entropy change across the shock is obtained

Boles
by applying the entropy-change equation for an
Thermodynamics

ideal gas across the shock:

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 16-40

Chapter Summary
• The deviation of actual nozzles from isentropic ones is expressed
in terms of the nozzle efficiency N, nozzle velocity coefficient CV,
and the coefficient of discharge CD, which are defined as
Actual kinetic energy at nozzle exit
Çengel = =
Boles Kinetic energy at nozzle exit for isentropic flow
from the same inlet state to the same exit pressure
Thermodynamics

Actual velocity at nozzle exit

= =
Velocity at nozzle exit for isentropic flow
from the same inlet state to the same exit pressure

Actual mass flow rate through nozzle

=
Mass flow rate through nozzle for isentropic flow
from the same inlet state to the same exit pressure

where h01 is the stagnation enthalpy of the fluid at the nozzle inlet,
h2 is the actual enthalpy at the nozzle exit, and h2s is the exit
Third Edition enthalpy under isentropic conditions for the same exit pressure.
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 16-41

Chapter Summary
• The performance of a diffuser is expressed in
terms of the diffuser efficiency D the pressure
Çengel
recovery factor FP, and the pressure rise
Boles coefficient CPR. They are defined as
Thermodynamics

Actual stagnation pressure at diffuser exit

Fp = =
Isentropic stagnation pressure

Actual pressure rise

Cpr = =
Isentropic pressure rise
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 16-42

Chapter Summary

Çengel • Steam often deviates considerably from ideal-gas

Boles
behavior, and no simple property relations are
Thermodynamics

available for it. Thus it is often necessary to use

steam tables instead of ideal-gas relations. The
critical-pressure ratio of steam is often taken to be
0.546, which corresponds to a specific heat ratio
of k = 1.3 for superheated steam.

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 16-43

Chapter Summary

Çengel
Boles
• At high velocities, steam does not start
Thermodynamics

condensing when it encounters the saturation

line, and it exists as a supersaturated substance.
Supersaturation states are nonequilibrium (or
metastable) states, and care should be exercised
in dealing with them.

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