Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Chapter One: 1. Road Construction and Managment
Chapter One: 1. Road Construction and Managment
Chapter One: 1. Road Construction and Managment
absolute minimum.
1.1.1Construction Staking
Is done Prior to the construction activity begins
used by the equipment operator in locating where to
begin cutting.
Is an activity of transfer of design information from
the plan to the ground
to keep soil disturbance to an absolute minimum.
Construction Staking
• Road cross section showing possible construction
information
• Figure 2. The effect of improperly starting the cut as marked by
the slope stake.
Starting the cut too high results in excess excavation
and side cast. Starting the cut too low leaves a over stepped cut bank.
Figure 3. Construction grade check. Engineer stands
on center of construction grade and sights to RP tag.
Measured distance and slope allow for determination
of additional cut.
1.1.2. Clearing and Grubbing of the Road
Construction Area
• Is an activity of Preparing the road right-of-way or
construction area
• During the clearing phase, trees are felled
• Grubbing refers to the clearing and removal of stumps
and organic debris
• Trees should be felled and cleared a minimum of 1 to 3
m from the top of the cut or toe of the fill
• The logs can be decked outside the construction or
skidded away
• Organic overburden or topsoil typically has to be
removed over the full construction width.
Clearing and Grubbing of the Road Construction
Area
• Clearing limits in relation to road bed widths.
Significant quantities of organic materials are removed
between B and E. Stumps are removed between B and
D. Stumps may be left between D and E. Organic debris
and removed stumps are placed in windrows at F to
serve as filter strips.
• Figure 4. Clearing limits in relation to road bed widths
Clearing and Grubbing of the Road
Construction Area
• The additional width between construction
width and forest edge ensures that space is
available to deposit organic debris outside the
road construction width and that there is no
overlap between forest edge and construction
area.
• In most cases, poorly constructed fills over organic
side cast debris was the reason for the failures.
Clearing and Grubbing of the Road
Construction Area
Organic material
decompose and result in uneven settlement and
potential side cast failure
should be deposited at the lower edge of the road
In most cases, poorly constructed fills over organic
side cast debris are reason for fill slope failures.
Pioneer road
During the grubbing phase, or preparation phase
often constructed to facilitate equipment access,
logging equipment movement, and delivery of
construction materials, such as culverts
Clearing and Grubbing of the Road
Construction Area
• Pioneer road location at bottom of proposed fill
provides a bench for holding fill material of
completed road.
1.2 General Equipment Considerations
The method and equipment used in road construction is an
important economic and design factor in road Location
and subsequent design.
A. Bulldozer in Road Construction
A bulldozer can be used in all phases of road
construction from excavation and drainage
installation to final grading
the most common piece of equipment in forest road
construction is the bulldozer equipped with straight or U-
type blades.
Bulldozers are efficient and economical piece of equipment
for road construction where roads can be full benched and
excavated material can be side cast and wasted.
1.2 General Equipment Considerations
1.2 General Equipment Considerations
the most economical pieces of equipment when
material has to be moved a short distance.
The economic haul or push distance for a bulldozer
with a straight blade is from 17 to 90 meters depending on
grade.
used when side slopes are not too steep(<50%)
On steep slopes, bulldozers should only be used
trench excavation
1.2 General Equipment Considerations
The road design should consider the following points w
hen bulldozers are to be used for road construction.
Roads should be full benched.
Earth is moved downgrade with the aid of gravity, not
up-grade
Fill material is borrowed rather than pushed
Rock outcrops should be bypassed
Adequate filter strips are provided along the toe of the
fill.
1.2 General Equipment Considerations
B. Hydraulic Excavator in Road Construction
relatively new technology in forest road
construction
This machine basically operates by digging, swinging
and depositing material
If side slopes >60 percent, end hauling and/or use of a
hydraulic excavator is highly recommended.
1.2 General Equipment Considerations
1.2 General Equipment Considerations
Advantages of hydraulic excavators :
Faster cycle time,
Higher bucket penetrating force,
More precise digging, and easier operator control.
Many attachments can be made to increase the
versatility of the equipment's.
Excavating – Earthworks
Loading Excavated Material
Scarification
Making of Drains
1.2 General Equipment Considerations
c. Loaders
A tractor equipped with a front – end bucket
These are equipment's used primarily to
load excavated materials to a hauling unit,
excavate soft to medium materials
loading hoppers, stockpiling materials, backfilling
ditches, and moving concrete and other construction
materials.
1.2 General Equipment Considerations
F. Water Truck
The major objective of this equipment is to take water
for construction and showering( adding optimum
amount of water(OMC) for compaction).
1.3 Subgrade Construction
construction of the subgrade begins after the clearing
and grubbing (stump removal) phase.
A. Subgrade Excavation with Bulldozer
Proper construction equipment and techniques are
critically important for minimizing erosion from
roads during and after the construction.
approximately 80 percent of the total accumulated
erosion over the life of the road occurs within the
first year after construction.
Of that, most of it is directly linked to the
construction phase.
1.3 Subgrade Construction
In order to keep erosion during the construction
phase to an absolute minimum four elements
must be considered.
Keep construction time (exposure of unprotected
surfaces) as short as possible
Plan construction activities for the dry season.
Install drainage facilities right away. Once started,
drainage installation should continue until
complete
Construct filter strips or windrows at the toe of fill
slopes to catch earth stumps and sheet erosion.
1.3 Subgrade Construction
A. Cut Construction
Three basic construction techniques are commonly
used:
1. side cast fills and/or wasting,
2. full bench construction with end haul, and
3. balanced road sections with excavation
incorporated into layered fills
1.3 Subgrade Construction
1. side cast fills and/or wasting,
traditionally has been the most common construction method
been responsible for the highest erosion rates and making
large areas unproductive.
Excavated material is side cast and wasted, rather than
incorporated into the road prism
The advantage is uniform subgrade and soil strength.
Side cast or wasted material cannot remain stable on side
slopes exceeding 60 to 70 percent ,Under such conditions
excavated material has to be end hauled to a safe disposal area
This requires dump trucks and excavators or shovels for
loading and hauling.
Side cast construction is the preferred construction method for
bulldozers.
1.3 Subgrade Construction
• An obvious disadvantage is the potential for erosion
of loose, unconsolidated side cast material.
Figure 7. Three basic road prism construction methods.
Subgrade Construction
• Road construction with a bulldozer. The machine
starts at the top and in successive passes excavates
down to the required grade. Excavated material is
side cast and may form part of the roadway.
Subgrade Construction
• Sliver fills created on steep side slopes where
ground slope and fill slope angles differ by less
than 7º and fill slope height greater than 6.0 meters
are inherently unstable.
Subgrade Construction
B. Fill Construction
• Only mineral soil, free of organic debris such as
stumps, tree tops and humus should be used
• Fills should be constructed and built up in layers
• Each layer, or lift, should be spread and then
compacted.
• Lift height before compaction depends on the
compaction equipment being used.
• It is considered poor practice to build fills by end
dumping instead of layering and compacting.
Subgrade Construction
• Fills are constructed by layering and compacting each layer.
Typically lift height should be about 30 cm and should not
exceed 50 cm. Compaction should be done with proper
compaction equipment and not a bulldozer.
Subgrade Construction
• Fills which are part of the roadway should not be
constructed by end dumping.
Subgrade Construction
• Compaction
Proper compaction techniques result in significant cost
reduction and reductions in erosion.
Erosion potential is directly proportional to the
excavation volume especially if it is side cast in
unconsolidated and loose fills.
1.3 Subgrade Construction
Subgrade Construction with Excavator
Because of their excellent placement control of excavated
material, they are ideal machines for construction under
difficult conditions.
preferred machine on steep side slopes
The excavator works from a platform or pioneer road at
the lower end of the finished road.
Subgrade Construction
First pass with excavator, clearing logs and stumps
from construction site. Working platform or pioneer
road just outside of planned road surface width.
Subgrade Construction
Second pass with excavator, removing or stripping
overburden or unsuitable material and placing it
below pioneer road.
Subgrade Construction
Third pass, finishing subgrade and embankment fill
over pioneer road. Road side ditch is finished at the
same time.
1.4. Construction of the Structural
layers of pavements
1.4.1 Subgrade compaction
Compaction is the reduction in volume of a partially
saturated soil mass which takes place as a result of
expulsion of air from the voids at the same water content to
increases the strength of subgrade soils.
Compaction is relatively simple in fill sections because all
the layers are subjected to construction processes.
Compaction is more difficult in cut sections.
Subgrade Compaction—Normal cases
Cohesion less soils (except silts) can be compacted from the
surface with heavy rollers or very heavy vibratory
compactors.
Cohesive soils (including silts) cannot be compacted in
thick layers.
In cut areas consisting of cohesive soils, it may be
necessary to remove the subgrade material and replace it
with sequential lifts capable of being compacted to the
required density.
Compaction of cohesive soil is best achieved with
penetrating rollers such as tamping or sheep foot.
Cohesion less, free-draining materials should be compacted
at moisture contents approaching saturation.
Subgrade Compaction—Special cases
Although compaction normally increases the strength of
soils, some soils lose stability when scarified and rolled.
Some soils shrink excessively during dry periods and
expand excessively when they absorb moisture.
Special treatment is required when these soils are
encountered.
A.Soils That Lose Strength
The types of soils that decrease in strength when remolded
are generally in the USCS CH, MH, and OH groups.
They are soils that have been consolidated to a very high
degree, either under an overburdened load by alternate
cycles of wetting and drying or by other means,
Subgrade Compaction—Special cases
B. Silts
The bearing capacity of silts, very fine sands, and rock flour
(predominantly USCS ML and SC groups) is reasonably good
if properly compacted within the specified moisture range.
Compaction of deposits of silt, very fine sand, and rock
flour located in areas with a high water table can pump
water to the surface.
The material becomes quick or spongy and practically loses
all load-bearing capacity.This condition can also develop
when silts and poorly draining, very fine sands are compacted
at a high moisture content.
Subgrade Compaction—Special cases
Therefore, it is difficult to obtain the desired compaction in
these silts and very fine sands at moisture contents greater
than optimum.
In areas with a high water table, drying is not possible until
the water table is sufficiently lowered.
Areas of this nature are best treated by replacing the soil
with sub base and base materials or with a dry soil that is
not adversely affected by water.
C. Swelling soils
• Soils are characterized as swelling if they display a
significant increase in volume with the addition of moisture.
Subgrade Compaction—Special cases