UNIT-3

BRIDGES

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 What is a Bridge?
• Bridge is a structure which covers a gap
• Generally bridges carry a road or railway across a natural or
artificial obstacle such as, a river, canal or another railway or
another road
• Bridge is a structure corresponding to the heaviest
responsibility in carrying a free flow of transport and is the
most significant component of a transportation system in case
of communication over gaps for whatever reason such as
aquatic obstacles, valleys and gorges etc.

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 SITE SELECTION OF BRIDGE
• Topography
• Catchment area
• Hydrology
• Geo-technical data
• Seismology
• Navigation
• Construction resources
• Nearby bridges
• Traffic data

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TOPOGRAPHY
• Details can be obtained from Survey of India Map.
• In addition, one cross section each across the river at the
selected sites should be taken.
CATCHMENT AREA
• This will also get from the same map (Survey of India)
• Used mainly for the flood analysis.
HYDROLOGIC PARTICULARS
• Study about the low water level, highest flood level , slop of
surface of water, flood velocity and discharge of river.
• Data obtained from local enquiries  or from the data available
for the nearest gauging site from irrigation or flood control
dept.
GEO-TECHNICAL AND SEISMIC DATA
• Study perform to get the stability of the river, location of 4
• faults, their activity and their likely repercussions on a major
structure to be put up and particulars of past earthquakes in the
site vicinity.
• Study perform also to get soil classification, grain size and
depth at which hard strata is likely to be met with.
• Mainly Augur boring test is used to collect the soil samples
and further to study its engineering properties.
NAVIGATIONAL REQUIREMENTS
• Some kind of navigation will exist on almost all major rivers.
• Study investigate about the size, density and volume of traffic
of vessels and boats so that it can be safely cross the river
without any nuisance to both the vessels and bridge.
CONSTRUCTION RESOURCES
• Investigation includes availability of quarry, skilled labor and
need for special equipment such as crushers, batching plants,
handling equipment etc. 5
 
DETAILS OF OTHER BRIDGES ACROSS THE RIVER
• Study conducting mainly to correlate general criteria used for
selection of sites and design of that bridge.
• Also to get the behaviour of the river at existing bridges on
either reach. Will help considerably in determining the
protection works, depth of foundation, type of foundation etc
required at each site.
TRAFFIC STUDY
• If the alternative locations can be separated by a considerable
distance, the volume and type of traffic that will pass at each
location may be different in some cases.

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 Bridge Alignment
• Depending upon the angle which the bridge makes with the
axis of the river, the alignment can be of two types.
(a) Square alignment : In this the bridge is at right angle to the
axis of the river.
(b) Skew alignment: In this bridge is at some angle to the axis
of river which is not a right angle.
 As far as possible, it is always desirable to provide the square
alignment.
 Following disadvantages of skew alignment
(1) A great skill is required for the construction.
(2) The water pressure on piers is high and non-uniform flow of
water. 7
(3)The foundation of a skew bridge is more susceptible to scour
action.
 At a creation location to avoid costly and unsafe approaches it
becomes essential to provide skew alignment. In such locations,
the following points are kept in mind.
(1) There should be smooth entry and exit of water underneath the
skew bridge.
(2) The skew alignment should not be curved. It is difficult to
construct and curved bridge. The curve bridge has to resist an
additional force due to centrifugal action.

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 Collection of bridge design data
• The following data and information are required for feasibility
design of bridge.
(1)Index map:
the index map to a scale of 1/50,000 should be issue from survey
of India. This map should show the proposed location of the
bridge, the alternative sites investigation and rejected, the
existing communications, the general topography and
important towns etc. In the vicinity.
(2)Contour survey plan:
the contour survey plan the topographical or other features that
might influence the location and design of the bridge and its
approaches, should be plotted. The survey plan should extend
to the distances shown below upstream and downstream of
any of the proposed site and to a sufficient distance on either
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side.
(a) 100 meters for catchment areas less than 3 sq.km. (scale not
less than 1/1000).
(b) 300 meters for catchment areas of 15 sq.km. (scale not less
than 1/1000).
(c) 1.5km for catchment areas more than then 15 sq.km. (scale
not less than 1/5000).
(3) Site plan: this should show the details of the site selection
and extend not less than 100 meters upstream and
downstream from the centre line of the crossing and covering
the approaches to a sufficient distance which in case of a
large bridge should not be less than 500 meters on either side
of the stream. The plan should include the following
information.
(d) the name of the stream or bridge and the road.
(e) The approximate outline of the banks, and rivers at H.F.L.
And L.W.L. 10
(c) The direction of flow.
(d) Alignment of the proposed crossing.
(e) The angle and direction of skew if the proposed alignment is
on a skew.
(f) The name of the nearest inhabited locality.
(g) Location of trial pits or borings.
(h) Location of all buildings, wells, out crops of rock and other
possible obstruction.
(i) Location of L-section X-sections of road and stream.
(4) Cross section: the cross section at the site of the proposed
bridge, at D/s and U/s should be plotted to the scale not less
than 1/1000 horizontally and to scale of not less than 1/100
vertically. The following information should be indicated on
the cross section.
(a) The Name of the stream. 11
(b) the name of the road and chainage.
(c)The position of low water level, the ordinary flood level and
the highest flood level.
(d) Maximum discharge and average velocity of flow at the
bridge site.
(e) The depth of scour below the H.F.L.
(5) Longitudinal section: The longitudinal section of the stream
showing the site of the bridge with highest flood level, the
ordinary flood level, the low water level and the bed levels to
the scale not less than 1/2500 horizontally and to the scale not
less than 1/1000 vertically should be drawn.
(6) Catchment area map: The catchment area map of the river
at the proposed bridge site is plotted from the topographical
map of survey of India drawn to a scale of 1/50000. the
included catchment area both in hilly parts and plain is
computed separately. 12
(7) Soil profile: The soil profile data as obtained from subsoil
exploration programme along each of different alternative
sites should be plotted showing the location of water table and
bed, thickness and composition of each soil strata. The levels
of bed, bank and depth of the rock or other hard soil suitable
for resting foundation should be clearly shown.

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 Economic span
Definition of Economic span: The economic span of a bridge is
the one which reduces the overall cost of the bridge to be a
minimum.
The overall cost of a bridge depends upon the following factors:
(1) Cost of materials and its nature.
(2) Availability of skilled labour.
(3) Span length.
(4) Nature of stream to be bridge.
(5) Climatic an other conditions.
The derivation for the economic span can be established on the
basis of the following assumptions.
(6) The bridge has a equal span lengths.
(7) The cost of the supporting system of super-structure varies 18
As the square of the span length.
(3) Cost of flooring and parapets wall varies directly as the span
this assumption is justified because as the span increases, the
quantity of material also increases.
(4) Cost of the pier and its foundation is constant.
(5) Cost of the abutments and their foundations is also constant.
Let
L=Total length of the bridge
l=Span length
n=The total number of spans=L/l
P=Cost of one pier with its foundation
Abut=Cost of one abutments and its foundation
Appr=Cost of one approach
T=Total bridge cost
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• According to (2) and (3) assumptions:
Cost of one span of super-structure= (al2+ bl)
Here, a and b are constants of variations.
There are (n-1) number of piers, and two abutments and
two approaches
The total cost of the bridge=Cost of supporting system of
super-structure + Cost of two abutments + Cost of (n-1)
piers + Cost of two approaches
T=n(al2+ bl) + (n-1) p + 2Abutment+2Approaches
Replacing

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 T=
Therefore,

For T to be minimum

Or

Economical span
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• Cost of supporting system of one span is equal to cost of
one pier. In other worlds, cost of sub-structure is equal to
the cost of super-structure.

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 Scour depth
Definition of Scour depth: When the velocity of stream exceed
the limiting velocity which the erodible particle of bed
materials can stand, the score occurs. The normal scour depth
is the depth of water in the middle of the stream when it is
carrying the peak flood discharge.
• Due to allowance should be made in the observed depth for
increase in scour resulting from.
(1) The design discharge being greater then the flood discharge
during which the scour was observed.
(2) the increase in velocity due to the obstruction in flow caused
by construction of the bridge.

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• For a safe design of bridge it is important to estimate the
correct scour depth. Where the practical method of
determining a scour is not possible the following theoretical
methods may be used to different types of stream.
(1) Scour depth of alluvial streams:
Case(i) linear waterway of the bridge is not less than the regime
width. In this case the normal depth is equal to the regime
depth given by the following the Lacey’s regime equation.

Where
d= Normal depth of scour below H.F.L. For regime conditions in
a stable channel.(in metres)
Q= The design discharge in m3 per sec.
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• f= Lacey’s silt factor foe a representative sample of the bed
material.
m is the mean diameter is the bed material
in (mm)
Case(II) linear waterway of the bridge is less than the regime
width. In this case the normal scour depth under the bridge can
be given by following equations.

where
W= the regime width of the stream
L= The waterway provided under the bridge
d= The normal scour depth
d1 = The normal scour depth with contracted waterway
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 Depth of foundation
• The depth of bridge foundation is determine by consideration
of the safe bearing capacity of the soil after taking into
account the effect of scour. In all doubtful cases, the bearing
capacity of the foundation soil is decided by actual field load
tests. The bore holes are driven to determine the adequacy of
thickness or the foundation bearing layer of the soil. The
minimum depth of foundation can be approximately calculated
by the following relationship.

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Where
h= The depth of foundation in meters.
P= The bearing capacity of soil in Kg/m 3
W= The specific weight of earth in Kg/m 3
= The angle of internal friction of the soil.

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Afflux

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Definition of afflux: Afflux is an increase in water level that can
occur upstream of a structure, such as a bridge or culvert, that
creates an obstruction in the flow

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 Clearances
Definition of Clearances:
To avoid any possibility of traffic striking any structural part.
clearance diagram are specified.
Freeboard:
Free board is the vertical distance between designed
high flood level, allowing for afflux, if any, and the level of the
crown of the bridge at its lowest point.

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Difference types of railway bridge
Bridge have been classified differently according to different
criteria's some of the railway bridge variety mainly are as
follows.
(1) Iron and Steel bridge
(2) Prestressed concrete bridge
(3) Reinforced cement concrete bridges (R.C.C.)

(1)Iron and steel bridge can be classified into following types.

(a) Steel girder bridge- Depending upon the type of girder used
for steel girders can be-
(I) Rolled joint bridge
(II)Plate girder bridge
(III) tubular or box girder bridge 34
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(b) Steel truss bridge- for spans between 40 to 37.5 m the truss
bridge is used. If bridge floor is supported at the top of truss, it
is called deck bridge. When a bridge deck is either suspended
or supported at the .

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(c) Continuous steel bridge- when the track of railways span
continuous, through the steel truss supports the floor of bridge,
it is called continuous steel bridge. The truss can be supported
by R.C.C. Piers . This bridge is economical in case of material
used and facilitates its construct more than one span.

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(d) Steel cantilever bridge- if cantilever truss is carrying the
bridge floor as superstructure, it is a steel cantilever bridge.
However, these types of bridge are not constructed these days.

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(2) Prestressed concrete bridge- these types of bridge are
widely used while designing bridges. It is due to the fact that
they have higher load carrying capacity. They are light in
weight (reduce dead load) and suitable from aesthetic point of
view . using prestressed concrete in bridge also eliminates
cracking of concrete and reduces maintenance cost. Hence are
economical and better quality.
(3) Reinforced cement concrete bridge: There are following
types of R.C.C bridge.
(a) R.C.C. Slab bridge: this types of bridge is mostly
constructed for culverts and submersible bridge for span up to
8 m. Here R.C.C. Slab carries the traffic load primarily.

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(c) R.C.C. Continuous bridge: The bridge that have more than
one span of R.C.C. Can be termed as R.C.C. Continuous
bridges. They have less expansion joint and thus economical.
But very little settlement of foundation can lead to failure,
apart from this property, they are suitable to construct long
spans.

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 Difference types of road bridge
• The difference types of road bridge are as follows.
(1) Beam bridges – simple, Continuous bridge
(2) Cantilever bridges
(3) Suspension bridge
(4) Arch bridge

(1) Beam bridges – simple, Continuous bridge

• The most basic type of bridge
• Typically consists of a beam simply Supported on each side by
a support and Can be made continuous later.
• Typically inexpensive to build

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Forces
• When something pushes down on the beam, the beam bends.
Its top edge is pushed together, and its bottom edge is pulled
apart.
• Currently, most of the beam bridges are precast (in case of RC
and PC) prefabricated
• Most are simply-supported
• Some are made continuous on site

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(2) Cantilever bridges
• In a cantilever bridge, the roadway is constructed out from the
pier in two directions at the same time so that the weight on
both sides counterbalance each other
• Notice the larger section at the support to resist the negative
moments.

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(3)Suspension bridge:
• Suspension bridge needs to have very strong main
cables.
• Cables are anchored at the abutment.

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(4) Arch bridge:
• Arch bridges are one of the oldest types of bridges and have
great natural strength.
• Instead of pushing straight down, the weight of an arch bridge
is carried outward along the curve of the arch to the supports
at each end.
• These supports, called the abutments, carry the load and keep
the ends of the bridge from spreading out.

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 Indian loading standard
• Design aspects of bridges
The standard procedures for design of bridges and their
components depend on whether they are for Highway bridges or
for Railway bridges. For Highway bridges, the standard codes of
practice prescribed by the Indian Roads Congress (IRC) are
applicable, whereas, for Railway bridges, Indian Railway
Standards (IRS Bridge Rules and IRS Bridge Codes) are
applicable.
• Design aspects of superstructure
IRC Bridge Code for Highway bridges consists of eight sections.
Section I General features of design
Section II Loads and stresses
Section III to VI Bridges of cement concrete, masonry, steel
and composite construction respectively.
Section IX Bearings 48
Design Loads:
(i) Dead load, including snow load if any
(ii) Live load
(iii) Impact or Dynamic loads and centrifugal forces
(iv) Wind load
(v) Longitudinal forces (due to tractive effort and braking)
(vi) Forces due to water currents
(vii) Earth pressure, including surcharge pressure
(viii) Temperature and deformation effects
(ix) Erection stresses and secondary stresses
(x) Earthquake forces
(xi) Forces due to impact of vehicles
• The bridge should be designed to withstand the worst
combination of the design loads with a defined probability
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 Design Discharge (Q)
Methods for determination are:
(a) Empirical formula
(b) Rational formula
(c) Area-velocity method
(d) Unit-hydrograph method

(A)Empirical formulae:

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(B) Rational formula [IRC: SP: 13-1973(2004 Revised)
Guidelines for the Design of small bridges and Culverts.]

Here, C = coefficient which depends upon the type and extent of

catchment.
i = Critical intensity of rainfall in mm/h during the time of
concentration of flood interval
A = Catchment area in sq.km (Weighted value of C is taken for
different types of areas in the catchment)

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(c)Area-Velocity method:

Manning's formula for permissible velocity of flow:

n = coefficient of rugosity or roughness; n depends on the bed

material.
S = slope of stream (taken to be the same as bed slope)
R = Hydraulic mean depth in m

Area of flow, A, may be got soundings for the depth of flow

at different points along the width of waterway.
Velocity of flow, V, may be got by using current meter.
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(d)Unit-hydrograph method:
'Hydrograph' is the graph between discharge and time due to a
rainfall of specified, duration and distribution.
'Unit-hydrograph' is the hydrograph representing a unit depth (1
mm) of direct run-off as a result of rainfall excess occuring
uniformly over the catchment for a specified duration (say 6 h or
12h). The area under a unit hydrograph represents the volume of
rainfall excess due to a rain of 1 mm over the entire basin.
A procedure following systematic steps has been evolved to
calculate peak discharge from the Unit-hydrograph.

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 Bridge super structure and substructure
Substructure Superstructure
Foundation (Pile/Spread footing) Any structure above bearing
Pier (Column) Wearing surface, cables
Abutment Handrails, Guard stones
Wing wall Girder, Beam, Arches

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Components of bridge

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Abutments: End supports of the bridge.
 They transfer loads from the superstructure on to the
foundations.
 They retain earth filling at the back to support the road or
railway at the approaches.
 They are mandatory and supports for safe load transfer.
Types of abutments:
 Without wing walls (not commonly used)
 With wing walls (the most popular type)

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Abutment with straight wings Abutment with splayed wings

Abutment with return wings Abutment for a girder bridge

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 PIER
Bridge Pier support the spans of the bridge and transfer the loads from
superstructure to the foundation. Piers should be strong enough to take the
both vertical and horizontal load. Its main function is to transfer the load from
the bridge superstructure foundation below it. They are subjected to huge
axial loads and bi-axial moments and shear forces in transverse and
longitudinal direction. Said that, pier are usually compression elements of a 
bridge. Piers are referred as Bents aswell.

Requirements of Bridge Piers

• It should effectively transfer loads from Superstructure to foundation without failure.
• It should withstand all force actions
• The material for the piers should be easily available
• It should have pleasant appearance.
• Its design should be simple.
• The piers should be durable against weathering, impacts and corrosion.
• The cost of construction should be cheap.
• It should have minimum repair and maintenance cost
• It should have stability against the lateral and longitudinal force actions, viz. Seismic,
Wind, Ice, Currents, Impacts.
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Types of Piers
Type of piers to be used in the bridge depends upon the type of bridge, sub-soil
conditions as well as the procedure adopted for the construction of bridge. The PIER
can be broadly divided into two parts:

Solid piers
Open piers

1. Solid piers:
These piers have solid and impermeable structure. The generally used materials used
for the construction of these type of piers are bricks, stone Masonry, mass concrete or 
RCC, etc. They may be further classified as:

Solid masonry piles

Solid RCC piles

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2. Open piers
The piers which are open i.e which allows the water to pass through the
structure are called as open piers. Open piers can be classified into the
following types:

Cylindrical piers
Column bents
Trestle piers or Trestle bent
Pile bents
Special or typical framed piers

SOME OTHER TYPE OF PEIRS

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 Wing walls
• Provide smooth entry and exit of water flow into and away
from the bridge, besides protecting the end of the abutment.
Types of wing walls:
(i) Straight wing walls
(ii) Splayed wing walls
(iii) Return wing walls

(i) Straight wing walls: they are suitable for small bridges
constructed across drains with low banks. Generally, they are
built for a railway bridge specially in cities, where the cost of
the land is high. In case of hard and rocky foundation, the
wing walls may be constructed in steps. When the soil is loose,
the foundation should be taken to a uniform depth. 97
Stepped foundation when provided must be built with vertical
built
joint, as otherwise there will be a crack formed due to unequal
settlement.

(II) Splayed wing walls: they are constructed generally at 45

degree with abutment and are straight or curved in plan.

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(III) Return wing walls: these are wall built at right angle to the
abutment at its both ends. They are design to retain the earth
filling of the approach road.

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 Approaches
The approaches are the length of the communication route at both
ends of the bridge. The alignment levels of the approaches are
affected by the design and layout of the bridge. As per I.R.C.
Recommendation they should have a minimum straight length of
15m on either side of a bridge.
where the horizontal curve
have to provided on the approaches beyond the straight portion on
either side, the minimum radius of curvature, the super-elevation
and transition length provided based on I.R.C. Guidelines.

 Floors and Flooring

Comprised of the following
Floor beam ,stringer, main flooring and wearing surface
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Choice of superstructure type

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BRIDGE FOUNDATION

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• Foundation is that part of the structure, which is in direct contact with
the loads and transmits them to the ground below. It is very important
part of every structure. Specially for massive structure, its design is
very important and difficult. Hence it should be designed with great
care.
• Bridge foundation, generally are of two types namely.
1. Shallow foundations (D<=B)
2. Deep foundations (D>= B)

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 Types of Foundations
1. Shallow foundations 2. Deep foundations
Wall (Spread) foundation Pile foundations
Isolated column Under-reamed pile
Foundation Well foundations
Combined foundation caisson foundation
Mat or raft foundation

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• Types of well shapes:
• Circular well
• Rectangular well
• Double Rectangular well
• Double Octagonal well
• Double – D well
• Twin circular well

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Difficulties during sinking of well

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 Pile foundation
• Our building is rested on a weak soil formation which can’t
resist the loads coming from our proposed building, so we
have to choose pile foundation.

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 Under-reamed piles
– Piles with enlarged base or a bulb, called 'Under –ream'.
Developed by CBRI, Roorkee. [IS: 2911-Part III-1980
(first revision)]
– Load-carrying capacity is
increased.

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Pile foundations
Most popular deep foundation because of multifarious uses of
piles, in addition to high load capacity, which is
advantageous in bridge foundations. Based on function or
action, piles may be
(i) End-bearing or point-bearing piles (transfer load through
pile top)
(ii) Friction piles (skin friction along the surface of the pile)
(iii) Tension or uplift piles (for anchorages)
(iv) Anchor piles (anchorage against horizontal pull)
(v) Batter piles (resist inclined loads in water-front structures)
(vi) Laterally loaded piles (support retaining walls)
(vii) Sheet piles (flexible retaining structures for bulkheads
and cofferdams – can be of timber, steel or concrete.)
(viii) Compaction piles (compact loose granular soils)
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Cofferdams

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Earth-fill

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• Rock-fill

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Rock-fill crib or timber crib

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(5) Single and Double-wall sheet pile

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(6) Cellular type

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Erection of bridge

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Trestle frame

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Floating barges or pontoons

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Self-Launching Erection Machines

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 Strengthening and repair of bridges

The following factors might necessitate the strengthening

and repair during the life time of a bridge.
1. Increase in the traffic load and intensity,
2. Damage and loss of cross section due to environmental
attacks, e.g. corrosion,
3. Damage due to fatigue,
4. Change in the design codes,
5. Errors in design of the structure,
6. Errors in construction of the structure,
7. Additional safety requirements,
8. Improving traffic conditions, for example changing the
geometry and increasing clearances,
9. Environmental concerns
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Opportunities provided by strengthening and repair
Strengthening and repair strategies provide the following
opportunities when dealing with deficient bridges:

1. Improving structural performance: example of improving

structural performance could be increasing the flexural or
shear load carrying capacity,
2. Improving serviceability: examples are possibilities for deck
replacement and widening, increasing durability, improving
maintainability and inspectability,
3. Economy: reduction of life cycle costs and use of efficient
design and construction methods.

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Steps to be taken for strengthening and repair
Initiation of repair and strengthening operations
could be summarized in the following steps:
1. Field inspection and structural health monitoring,
2. Preparing an inspection report,
3. Computing the condition rating and sufficiency
rating, for funding approval,
4. Analysis and load rating (both inventory and
operating ratings),
5. Preparing a rehabilitation report,
6. Implementing diagnostic design procedures,
7. Selecting methods of repair and strengthening,
8. Preparing contract documents and selective
reconstruction
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Defining the Objectives of strengthening and
repair
With the aging of infrastructure, road and railway
authorities, bridge owners and governments spend
a lot of money on maintenance of their bridges.
Strengthening and repair of bridges are project
specific since no two bridges are alike and all are
located in different traffic conditions. Design for
strengthening and repair is diagnostic and the
diversity and complexity of the issues make it
different from conventional new bridge design.

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It differs from new bridge design in a number of
ways by requiring:
 Structure condition evaluation and load rating,
 Alternative analysis and computer applications,
 Use of new repair materials and state of the art
rehabilitation techniques,
 Staged construction,
 Modern construction techniques,
 Decision making models such as decision matrix,
life cycle costs, and risk analysis

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The objectives of upgrading (including strengthening
and repair)are round-the- clock access for road users,
rideability, inspectability, condition evaluation, and
maintainability. It requires restoring structural members
which are deficient. Different engineering solutions
might be taken for this purpose. Basic objectives are to
ensure safety by correcting deficiencies, providing
comfort to users, maintaining the environment, and
serviceability. It also means routine or incidental work
necessary to maintain function of the bridge deck with
improved traffic conditions, increased load capacity,
and low cost.
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Common problems in bridges based on
the data collection
Bridge Common problems
material for superstructure
/Element
Pre stressed/post  Inspection of tendons for corrosion
tensioned  Measurements of tendons relaxation
concrete  Lack of grouting
 Deck joints maintenance
 Road surface maintenance
 Drainage system cleaning
 Reinforcements design
 Concrete cracks injections
 Anti-corrosion protection paintings
 Tendons anchorage maintenance
 Reparations due to vehicles impacts
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Bridge Common problems
material
/Element
Reinforced  Corrosion of reinforcement
concrete  Deck joints maintenance
 Road surface maintenance
 Drainage system cleaning
 Reinforcements design
 Concrete cracks injections
 Anti-corrosion protection paintings
 Reparations due to vehicles impacts
 ASR in synergy with frost

186
Bridge Common problems
material
/Element
Steel/concrete  Deck joints maintenance
composite  Road surface maintenance
 Drainage system cleaning
 Reinforcements design
 Anti-corrosion protection paintings
 Reparations due to vehicles impacts
 Examination of shear studs
 Temperature deformation control
 Examination of welded seams
 Rough Holes reparation
 Cracking of the deck over supports

187
Bridge Common problems
material
/Element
Steel and wrought  Fatigue
iron  Deck joints maintenance
 Road surface maintenance
 Drainage system cleaning
 Anti-corrosion protection paintings
 Reparations due to vehicles impacts
 Temperature deformation control
 Examination of welded seams
 Rough Holes reparation
 Brittleness
 Corrosion from lack of preventive
maintenance
 Fatigue of secondary members
188
Bridge Common problems
material
/Element
Brick or stone  Road surface maintenance
arches  Reinforcements design
 Cracks injections
 Reparations due to vehicles impacts
 Calculation of load-bearing capacity
 Repair methods that do not disrupt
traffic

189
 For Substructure
Bridge Common problems
material
/Element
Bearings  Difficulty of inspection
 Bearings maintenance
 Bearings substitution
 Anchorages bearings substitution
 Excessive friction coefficient
 Bearings slide
 Lack of movement
 Anchorage of the footing plates on
older bridges
 Corrosion on older bridges

190
Bridge Common problems
material
/Element
Abutments  embankment settlement
 Anchorage design at walls
 Embankment settlement
 Insufficient compaction of
embankment soil
 Inefficient drainage system
 Erosion, earth movement and
vegetation

191
Bridge Common problems
material
/Element
Piers/columns  Cracking, chloride, ASR
 Scour at river bridges piers
 Reinforcements design
 Concrete cracks injections
 Anti-corrosion protection paintings
 Reparations due to vehicles impacts
 Chloride-induced corrosion (De-icing
salts)

192
Bridge Common problems
material
/Element
Foundations  Settlement, pile bearing capacity,
chloride
 Scour at river bridges piers
 Concrete cracks injections in deep
foundations
 Compression of natural soil due to
embankment loads
 Calculation of the load-bearing
capacity of timber piles

193
Bridge Common problems
material
/Element
Approach  Settlement
embankments/tra  Compression of natural soil due to
nsition embankment loads
zones/bridge ends

194
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Howrah Bridge suspended span over the
Hooghly River in West Bengal

197
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Saraighat Guwahati
Brahmaputra

199
 The Mahatma Gandhi Setu Bridge

The Mahatma Gandhi Setu Bridge built over the river Ganga in Patna is
the world’s longest river bridge. One of the longest single river bridges in
the world, it extends over 5.575 km from Hajipur at the north end to Patna
at the south end. Built by Gammon India Limited, there are 48 pilers to
this bridge.
200
 Indira Gandhi Setu or Pamban Bridge
Rameshwaram

Indira Gandhi Setu is also known as Pamban Bridge. It is the second

longest sea bridge in India, after Bandra-worli Sea, at a length of about
2.3 km. One of the country’s architectural marvels, the meter gauge
bridge stands over the Palk Straits connecting Mandapam and the
island of Rameshwaram at the very tip of India. The railway bridge is
201
6,776 ft and was opened for traffic in 1914.
 Vidyasagar Setu Popularly known as the
second Hooghly kolkata Bridge

Popularly known as the second Hooghly Bridge, Vidyasagar Setu is a

cable bridge built over Hooghly River, Kolkata (Calcutta). It links the city
of Howrah to its twin city of Kolkata. It is a toll bridge for all vehicles. At a
total length of 822.96 m 202
 Narmada Bridge Gujurat

The award-winning Second Bridge over the Narmada River near Zadeshwar,
Gujurat, links Mumbai and Ahmedabad. Built in a record period of 32 months,
this balanced cantilever type bridge connects Vadodara and Bharuch across
Narmada River on NH-8. It consists of 13 main spans of 96.2 m and 4.63 km
of approach roads. 203
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