POLLUTION

BY AKRAM HASAN ALSULTANY

Air Pollution
 
Definition: Air pollution is the presence of substances in air in sufficient concentration and for
sufficient time, so as to be, or threaten to be injurious to human, plant or animal life, or to property,
or which reasonably interferes with the comfortable enjoyment of life and property .
- It is an increasing problem in all countries
- It is increased with population and industrial activities
- It has huge economical effects
 
There are many air pollution disasters such as Dinorah, Loss Angeles , London, Belgium, Meuse
river valley, India, Chernobyl
The nature of Air Pollutants
On the basis of particle size, there are three major categories of air pollutants : gaseous pollutants, particulate
.pollutants and aerosols
1-Gaseous pollutants consist of atoms, molecules and include harmful gases, which can freely mix with air without
settling down. Some examples of gaseous pollutants of air are carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, Sulfur dioxide,
hydrogen sulfide, nitrogen oxides and hydrocarbons.

2-Particulate pollutants include finely divided solids as well as liquids having particle size from 1 µm
to 10µm
. Particulates are harmful to the living as well as non-living things. The examples of particulate pollutants in the air
are: dust, smoke, clouds, fumes, mist, spray and smog.

3-Aerosols are suspensions of fine particulate matter in the air. Aerosols have particle size smaller than particulates.
Their particle size ranges from 10 nm to 1µm. Aerosols can be either liquid or solid particles. They are small enough
to remain suspended in the atmosphere for long periods of time. Smoke, fine dust, fog, clouds are examples of
aerosols.
Particulates and aerosols serve as collectors of chemically active Sulfur oxides, nitrogen oxides, ozone, hydrocarbons
.and other pollutants and are serious health hazards
 
 Pollutant Sources:
1- Stationary sources, factories,
industries
2- Movable, cars , automobiles
 
They are classified as:
1-Natural processes

2- Man made
.

The ambient air quality may be defined by the concentration of a set of pollutants which may be present in the
ambient air we breath in. These pollutants may be called criteria pollutants. Emission standards express the allowable
concentrations of a contaminant at the point of discharge before any mixing with the surrounding air .
Smog in Los Angeles
1-natural processes.
For example :

1. Volcanic eruptions release large amounts of gases and

particulate matter in the air
2. Forest fires release CO2 and smoke
3. Decomposition of plant and animal residue
4. Pollen grains, storms
5. Methane gas
 
However, the contribution from these natural processes is
within tolerable limits.
2-man-made pollution sources can conveniently be grouped under single or point sources. multiple or area sources
and line sources. Point sources such as mills. power plants. Oil refineries and pulp and paper mills etc. with their tall
stacks are. usually identified as major contributors to air pollution.
Area sources are equally bad , residential areas. apartments. office buildings. hospitals and scattered point sources in
an area are the greatest contributors. Line sources such as express ways so far seem to affect only vehicle drivers.
However. in the narrow streets of the cities the automobiles constitute a great health hazards to the general public. not
only because of its large quantity of pollutants but also because it emits the poison at breathing level. The US Public
Health Service has cataloged the major sources of pollutants as follows
Automobiles (Transport)

In urban areas automobiles form a significant source of a number of air pollutants ,namely, particulates, NOx,
hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide and lead. These pollutants are produced when fuel is burnt under less than
ideal conditions. Non-uniform oxygen supply within the combustion chamber and lower flame temperature
leads to incomplete combustion releasing CO, HC and un burnt particles in the exhaust .
Tetraethyl lead, (C2H5)4 Pb, is added to petrol as anti-knock additive. Where such petrol is used lead is emitted
in the exhaust fumes as inorganic particulates .
Industrial sources
. Only two sources are discussed here as illustrative examples
Cement manufacture
Raw materials include lime, silica, aluminum and iron. Lime is obtained from calcium carbonate. Other raw materials
are introduced as sand, clay, shale, iron are and blast furnace slag. The process consist of mining, crushing, grinding,
and calcining in a long cylindrically shaped oven or kiln
Sulfuric Acid Manufacture
Sulfuric acid is produced from sulfur, which is burnt to obtain SO2. Sulphur dioxide is converted to trioxide in
presence of vanadium pentoxide catalyst. The sulfur trioxide is absorbed in recycling concentrated sulfuric acid.
Unreacted SO2 escapes with the flue gas. New large plants now a days use double conversion double absorption
(DCDA) process realizing above 99 percent efficiency .
Constant combustion
 
Power plant
In power plants energy is generated by burning coal and oil. Because sulfur is one of the ingredients of these fuels
power plants are the greatest contributors to sulfur dioxide (502) pollution. Beside the power plants, as the
greatest source of particulate matter, some polynuclear aromatic
.hydrocarbons are also emitted by the power plants
Space heating is a source of air pollution
.in Western countries
Air pollutants can be classified in two general classes

.Primary Pollutants: Those emitted directly from sources

 
Secondary Pollutants: Those formed in the atmosphere by
chemical interactions among atmospheric constituents and
.primary pollutants
:Primary Pollutants
Minutes (particulates)
 
Solid or liquid aerosols suspended in the atmosphere are refered to as particulate matter. They are of wide range of
sizes varying from greater than 100 ppm to less than 0.1. mm. Particles larger than 10 pm consist mainly of dust,
coarse dirt, fly ash from industrial and erosion processes (Wilfried, 1972). The dust is usually so heavy that it is mostly
deposited near its source. The smaller smoke particles remain longer in the air and affect larger areas. They are
breathed into the lungs, where they remain permanently and blacken the tissues (Kenneth, 1980). The Air Quality
Criteria Document for Particulate Matter’, published in 1969, defines the term 'particle' as "any dispersed 'matter, solid
or liquid, in which the individual aggregates are larger than single small gas molecules (0.0015 micrometer in
diameter) but smaller than about 500 micrometers.
The term total
suspended particulate matter (TSP) refers to this entire range of airborne particles, whereas fine suspended particulate
matter (FSP) is generally thought of as having a diameter smaller than approximately to 2 microns (Frederica and
Ahmed, 1979). Particulate matter arise either from condensation process or from dispersion processes (erosion.
grinding. spraying. etc.). Particles less than 0.1 p undergo random Brownian motions
resulting from collision with individual molecules.
Carbon monoxide (CO)
 
Carbon monoxide (CO) is a colorless and odorless gas. It is very stable and has a life time 2 to 4 month's in the
atmosphere. It originates from the incomplete combustion of carboneous material and is the air pollutant emitted in
the largest quantity (except, when CO2 is considered as pollutant).
Carbon ,monoxide appears to have no detrimental effects on material surfaces. However, there are many studies
which show that high concentrations of carbon monoxide can cause physiological and pathological changes and
ultimately death. Carbon monoxide is a poisonous inhalant that deprives the body
.tissues of necessary oxygen
Sulphur oxides
 
The most important Sulphur oxide emitted by pollution sources is Sulphur dioxide (SO2), although some Sulphur
trioxide (SO3) is also generally produced in amount no more than a few per cent of the 502. Sulphur dioxide is a
nonflammable, nonexplosive, colorless gas that causes a taste sensation at concentrations from 0.3 to 1.0 ppm in air.
At concentrations above 3.0 ppm the gas has a pungent irritating odour . Sulphur dioxide is partly converted into
Sulphur trioxide or to sulphuric acid and its salts by photochemical or catalytic processes in the atmosphere. Sulphur
trioxide and moisture form Sulphuric acid. The oxides of Sulphur in combination with particulate and
moisture produce the most damaging effects attributed to atmospheric air pollution.
Actually only about one-third of the total Sulphur oxides in the atmosphere are believed to be produced by man's
activities. It has been estimated that Sulphur oxides from man's activities is emitted into the atmosphere as 132
million metric tons, largely from coal and petroleum 60mbustion (Laurent Hodges, 1973). Natural sources of Sulphur
are biologically produced hydrogen-sulphide (H2S) (arising from decay of organic' matter). That is eventually
oxidized to Sulphur oxides and sulphates. Since aerosols of sulphuric acid and other sulphates makeup from 5 to 20
per cent of the total suspended particulate matter in urban air, they contribute significantly to the reduction in
visibility.
Hydrocarbons
 
are chemical compounds containing only carbon and hydrogen. They may be open chain or cyclic compounds
The light hydrocarbons are gaseous at ordinary temperature. The
motor vehicles contribute significant amounts of hydrocarbons in the atmosphere. Hydrocarbons are a very
important component of photochemical smog. the naturally occurring hydrocarbon, methane , is the principle
constituent of the fuel known as natural gas. It is colorless and odorless. Heavier hydrocarbons, such as those that
occur naturally, e.g., petroleum are liquids.
 
The gaseous and volatile liquid hydrocarbons are the ones of particular interest as air pollutants. Hydrocarbons
with more than about 12 carbon atoms are not present in the atmosphere in the concentration high enough to be of
concern. Studies of the carcinogenicity of certain classes of hydrocarbons do indicate that some cancers appear to
be caused by exposure to aromatic hydrocarbons found in soot and tars. Identifiable airborne carcinogenic
hydrocarbons are mostly Polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons (Wark and Warner, 1976).
Oxides of nitrogen
Although many different oxides of nitrogen are known, only nitric oxide (NO) and nitrogen dioxide (No2) are emitted to the
atmosphere by man in significant quantities. They are formed by reaction of the nitrogen and oxygen in the atmosphere when
combustion takes place at high temperature (typically exceeding 1100oc)
 
Secondary Pollutants
 
Nitrogen dioxide can react with moisture present in the atmosphere to form nitric acid. which can cause
considerable corrosion of metal surfaces. Nitrogen dioxide absorbs visible light and at a concentration of 0.25 ppm
will cause appreciable reduction in visibility.

Smog is often used as a generic term for any kind of air pollution that reduces visibility, especially in
urban areas. However, it is useful to distinguish two broad types: industrial smog and photochemical
smog.
Events like the London smog of 1952 are often referred to as industrial smog because SO2 emissions
from burning coal play a key role. Typically, industrial smog—also called gray or black smog_develops under cold
and humid conditions. Cold temperatures are often associated with inversions
that trap the pollution near the surface High humidity allows for rapid oxidation of SO2 to form sulfuric acid and
sulfate particles. Events similar to the 1952
London smog occurred in the industrial towns of Liege, Belgium, in 1930, killing more than 60 people,
and Donora, Pennsylvania, in 1948, killing 20.
 Today coal combustion is a major contributor to urban air pollution in China, especially from emissions of SO2 and
aerosols (footnote 2). Air pollution regulations in developed countries have reduced industrial smog events,
but photochemical smog remains a persistent problem, largely driven by vehicle emissions. Photochemical smog
forms when NOx and VOCs react in the presence of solar radiation to form ozone. The solar radiation also promotes fo
secondary aerosol particles from oxidation of NOx, VOCs, and SO2. Photochemical smog typically develops in
summer (when solar radiation is strongest) in stagnant conditions promoted by temperature inversions and weak winds
Photochemical smog is a ubiquitous urban problem in the developed world and often blankets large
populated regions such as the eastern United States and western Europe for extended periods in
summer. Ozone and aerosols are the two main health hazards of photochemical smog. Ozone is invisible, but
aerosol particles scatter sunlight as discussed above in Section 5, and are responsible for the whitish
haze associated with smog. Because ozone is created in the atmosphere, concentrations are often
higher downwind of urban areas than in the urban areas themselves
 
Health & Environmental Effects of Air Pollution

Health Effects

Air pollution can harm us when it accumulates in the air in high enough concentrations. Millions of Americans live in
areas where urban smog, particle pollution, and toxic pollutants pose serious health concerns. People exposed to high
enough levels of certain air pollutants may experience:
§ Irritation of the eyes, nose, and throat

§ Wheezing, coughing, chest tightness, and breathing difficulties

§ Worsening of existing lung and heart problems, such as asthma

§ Increased risk of heart attack
 
In addition, long-term exposure to air pollution can cause cancer and damage to the immune, neurological, reproductive,
and respiratory systems. In extreme cases, it can even cause death.
Who Is Most at Risk?
Air pollution is a problem for all of us. However, some groups of people are especially sensitive to common air pollutants
such as particulates and ground-level ozone. Sensitive populations include children, older adults, people who are active
outdoors, and people with heart or lung diseases, such as asthma. If you are sensitive to air pollution, you need to be
aware of steps you can take to protect your health.
 Environmental Effects

Along with harming human health, air pollution can cause a variety of environmental effects:
Acid rain is precipitation containing harmful amounts of nitric and sulfuric acids. These acids are formed
primarily by nitrogen oxides and sulfur oxides released into the atmosphere when fossil fuels are burned.
These acids fall to the Earth either as wet precipitation (rain, snow, or fog) or dry precipitation (gas and
particulates). Some are carried by the wind, sometimes hundreds of miles. In the environment, acid rain
damages trees and causes soils and water bodies to acidify, making the water unsuitable for some fish
and other wildlife. It also speeds the decay of buildings, statues, and sculptures that are part of our
national heritage. Acid rain has damaged Massachusetts lakes, ponds, rivers, and soils, leading to
damaged wildlife and forests.
Haze is caused when sunlight encounters tiny pollution
particles in the air. Haze obscures the clarity, color,
texture, and form of what we see. Some haze-causing
pollutants (mostly fine particles) are directly emitted to the
atmosphere by sources such as power plants, industrial
facilities, trucks and automobiles, and construction
activities. Others are formed when gases emitted to the air

Effects on wildlife. Toxic pollutants in the air, or deposited on soils or surface waters, can
impact wildlife in a number of ways. Like humans, animals can experience health problems if
they are exposed to sufficient concentrations of air toxics over time. Studies show that air
toxics are contributing to birth defects, reproductive failure, and disease in animals. Persistent
toxic air pollutants (those that break down slowly in the environment) are of particular concern
in aquatic ecosystems. These pollutants accumulate in sediments and may biomagnify in
tissues of animals at the top of the food chain to concentrations many times higher than in the
water or air.
Thank you