CHAPTER 8:

SOCIAL GROUPS
AND
SOCIAL ORGANIZATIONS
“No man is an island”
- John Donne
GROUP
What is GROUP?
a number of people or things that are
located close together or are considered
or classed together.

GROUP
Example of a Group

Workers

GROUP
Group of Soldiers

GROUP
AGGREGATE
An aggregate is a collection of people
who happen to be at the same place at
the same time, but who have no other
connection to one each other.

AGGREGATE
Example of Aggregate:

Random people in the street, Bus and Jeep stop

AGGREGATE
SOCIAL CATEGORY
A category is a collection of people who
share a particular characteristic. They do
not necessarily interact with one another
and have nothing else in common.

CATEGORY
Examples of Social Category:

Human Race

Gender

CATEGORY
Examples of Social Category:

Religion Nationality

CATEGORY
COLLECTIVITY
These are clusters of people interacting
with each other but the interactions are
passing or short-lived. Temporary groups
like collectivities are not governed by the
established norms of the culture.

COLLECTIVITY
Examples of Collectivity

Spectators/Audience

COLLECTIVITY
 FACTORS THAT
INFLUENCE GROUPS
1. Motivational base shared by
Individuals – Individual find themselves in
similar situations that may have
motivational implications for the
formation of group. The motives for
group formation cover the entire range of
social needs, desires, interest and noble
activities.

FACTORS THAT
INFLUENCE GROUPS
2. Size of the Group – The size of a group
may range from two to a million
members. When a group has two
members, it is called dyad, as in a
friendship group.

FACTORS THAT
INFLUENCE GROUPS
3. Type of Group goals – A group will
develop structural forms that will
facilitate the achievement of its goals and
block structural forms that will slow down
the pursuit of its goals.

FACTORS THAT
INFLUENCE GROUPS
4. The kind of group cohesion – Group
cohesion refers to the degree which the
members of a group have the ability to
function and interact together towards
the pursuit of their goals.

FACTORS THAT
INFLUENCE GROUPS
SOCIAL ORGANIZATION
Social Organization may be viewed as a
process of bringing order and meaning
into human social life (Olsen 1968:2)
Social Organization affects social
relationship which can be observed in
various forms in our life, ranging from the
smallest relationship group to the most
complex society.

SOCIAL ORGANIZATION
a social organization is a pattern of
relationships between and among
individuals and groups. Characteristics
of social organization can include
qualities such as size, sexual composition,
spatiotemporal cohesion, leadership,
structure, division of labor,
communication systems, and so on.

SOCIAL ORGANIZATION
 Example of Social Organization

Organization
consist workers
with same
goals, value,
and so on

SOCIAL ORGANIZATION
SOCIAL STRUCTURE
Social Structure is an abstraction of and
cannot be seen but has to be inferred from
the observations of human behavior. Social
Structure refers to the interdependent
network of roles and the hierarchy of
statuses which define reciprocal
expectations and the power arrangement
of the members of social unit guided by
norms (Sheriff and Sherif 1969:150)

SOCIAL STRUCTURE
Example of Social Structure

SOCIAL STRUCTURE
SOCIAL FUNCTION
Social function is a component of social
organization. It refers to the results of
action that occur in relation to a particular
structure and includes the results of the
activities of individuals occupying
particular statuses (Schwartz 1968:181)

SOCIAL FUNCTION
SOCIAL GROUPS
Social Group is a group of people who see
each other frequently and consider
themselves a part of the group. Except in
rare cases, we all typically belong to many
different types of social groups. For
example, you could be a member of a
sports club, church group, college class,
workplace and more.

SOCIAL GROUPS
THERE ARE 2 TYPES OF
SOCIAL GROUP
PRIMARY GROUPS
No two groups are created equal. Each
typically has it’s own purpose, culture,
norms, etc. Primary groups are those that
are close-knit. They are typically small
scale, include intimate relationships, and
are usually long lasting. The members of
primary groups feel a strong personal
identity with the group.

PRIMARY GROUPS
A Nuclear family or Elementary family is
a family group consisting of a pair of
adults and their children.

Example of PRIMARY
GROUPS
SECONDARY GROUPS
Secondary groups are another type of
social group. They have the opposite
characteristics of primary groups. They
can be small or large and are mostly
impersonal and usually short term. These
groups are typically found at work and
school.

SECONDARY GROUPS
Example of SECONDARY
GROUPS
GEMEINSCHAFT AND
GESSELSCHAFT
A similar distinction in the primary-
secondary group dichotomy was that
developed by Ferdinand Tonnies
(1951:82) between Gemeinschaft (Close
communal relationships or community)
and Gesselschaft (Organized impersonal
relationships or society)

GEMEINSCHAFT AND
GESSELSCHAFT
GEMEINSCHAFT
Gemeinschaft is an association in which
individuals are oriented to the large
association as much if not more than to
their own self interest. Furthermore,
individuals in Gemeinschaft are regulated
by common mores, or beliefs about the
appropriate behavior and responsibility of
members of the association, to each other
and to the association at large
GEMEINSCHAFT AND
GESSELSCHAFT
Gemeinschaft :
-A social system in which most relationships
are personal or traditional
-Is a community or intimate, private, and
exclusive living and familism.
-Culture is homogeneous and tradition
around.

GEMEINSCHAFT AND
GESSELSCHAFT
GESELLSCHAFT
Gesellschaft
in contrast, describes associations in
which for the individual, the larger
association never takes on more
importance than individual self interest,
and lack the same level of shared mores.
Gesellschaft is maintained through
individuals acting in their own self
interest.
GEMEINSCHAFT AND
GESSELSCHAFT
Gesellschaft :
-A social system in which most
relationships are impersonal, contractual
or bargain-like.
-Relationship is individualistic, business-
like, secondary and rationalized.
-Culture is heterogeneous and more
advanced.

GEMEINSCHAFT AND
GESSELSCHAFT
 IN-GROUP
AND
OUT-GROUP

OUT-GROUP IN-GROUP
Groups may be classified as in-group and
out-group. in-group and out-group are not
actual groups but a kind of perspective
relationship that exist in the minds as an
individual learns to use the pronouns “we”
to refer the in-group, and “they” to refer
the out-group.

IN-GROUP AND OUT-GROUP

Those who belong consider themselves a
social unit. This unit has boundaries which
separate the “we” and “they”. Therefore,
one says “we are in” and “they are out”.

IN-GROUP AND OUT-GROUP

IN-GROUP
an exclusive, typically small, group of people
with a shared interest or identity. This refers to
the fact that under certain conditions people will
preference and have affinity for one’s in-group
over the out-group, or anyone viewed as outside
the in-group. This can be expressed in one's
evaluation of others, linking, allocation of
resources and many other ways.

IN-GROUP AND OUT-GROUP

OUT-GROUP
an out-group is a social group with which an
individual does not identify. For example,
people may find it psychologically meaningful to
view themselves according to their race, culture,
gender, age, or religion. In other words, persons
who are excluded from an in-group.

IN-GROUP AND OUT-GROUP

Some Of The Differences Between
In-Group and Out-Group Are As
Follows:

IN-GROUP AND OUT-GROUP

1. The groups with which individual
identifies himself are his in group. one’s
family, one’s college are example of his in
group. But out groups refers to those
groups with which individual do not
identify himself. These are outside groups.
Pakistan is an out group for Indians.

Difference between
IN-GROUP AND OUT-GROUP
2. In group members use the term ‘we’ to
express themselves but they use the term
‘they’ for the members of out-group.
3.  Individual is the member of his in group
whereas he is not at all a member of his
out group.

Difference between
IN-GROUP AND OUT-GROUP
4. In-group based on ethnocentrism.
Ethnocentrism is one of the important
characteristic of in group. But out-group is
not based on ethnocentrism.
5. Similarity in behavior, attitude and
opinion is observed among the members
of in-group. But they show dissimilar
behavior; attitude and opinion towards the
members of out-group.
Difference between
IN-GROUP AND OUT-GROUP
6. In group members have positive attitude
towards their own in group but they have
negative attitudes towards their out group.
7. In group is a group to which individual
belongs to but all other group to which he
does not belongs to are his out group.

Difference between
IN-GROUP AND OUT-GROUP
8. Members of in group display co-
operation, good-will, mutual help and
possess a sense of solidarity, a feeling of
brotherhood and readiness to sacrifice
themselves for the group. But individual
shows a sense of avoidance, dislike,
indifference and antagonism towards the
members of out group.

Difference between
IN-GROUP AND OUT-GROUP
FORMAL AND INFORMAL
ORGANIZATIONS
Formal Organization
A formal organization is a social system
organized around specific goals and
usually consisting of several interrelated
groups or subsystems. Formal
organizations are governed by clearly
stated and enforced norms.

FORMAL AND INFORMAL

ORGANIZATIONS
Examples:
Corporations, The Catholic Church, Court
Systems, Military Organizations, and
University Administrations.

FORMAL AND INFORMAL

ORGANIZATIONS
 CHARACTERISTICS OF
FORMAL ORGANIZATION

FORMAL AND INFORMAL

ORGANIZATIONS
• Well defined rules and regulation
• Determined objectives and policies
• Status symbol
• Limitation on the activities of the
individual
• Strict observance of the principle of
coordination

FORMAL AND INFORMAL

ORGANIZATIONS
• Messages are communicated through
scalar chain
• It is to best attain the objectives of the
enterprise.

FORMAL AND INFORMAL

ORGANIZATIONS
An informal organization is the
interlocking social structure that governs
how people work together in practice. It is
the aggregate of, norms, personal and
professional connections through which
work gets done and relationships are built
among people who shares
common organizational affiliation or
cluster of affiliations.
FORMAL AND INFORMAL
ORGANIZATIONS
It consists of a dynamic set of personal
relationships, social networks, communities of
common interest, and emotional sources of
motivation.

FORMAL AND INFORMAL

ORGANIZATIONS
Characteristics of Informal
Organization

FORMAL AND INFORMAL

ORGANIZATIONS
• evolving constantly
• grass roots
• dynamic and responsive
• excellent at motivation
• requires insider knowledge to be seen

FORMAL AND INFORMAL

ORGANIZATIONS
• treats people as individuals like
• flat and fluid
• cohered by trust and reciprocity
• difficult to pin down
• collective decision making
• essential for situations that change quickly
or are not yet fully understood

FORMAL AND INFORMAL

ORGANIZATIONS
Difference Between Formal and
Informal Organizations

FORMAL AND INFORMAL

ORGANIZATIONS
Informal organization include social
standards, relationships and interactions that
take place among various individuals in
companies, while formal organization
includes the rules, regulations and guides
that govern standard operating procedures
of companies

FORMAL AND INFORMAL

ORGANIZATIONS
FORMAL AND INFORMAL
ORGANIZATIONS
BUREAUCRACY
Bureaucracy is a system of government in
which most of the important decisions are
made by state officials rather than by
elected representatives. Bureaucracy is
often associated with inefficiency, red tape,
delay or under the table arrangement. Yet
these are the very things which the
bureaucracy aims to correct.

BUREAUCRACY
 Advantages of
BUREAUCRACY
Control
With lots of management, a bureaucratic
structure has a very strong boundary.
Commands and expectations are all very
clear and well communicated. Authority is
not spread; instead this is centralized
among employees. Job descriptions are
specialized and detailed. 

BUREAUCRACY
Economies of Scale
 Departments share resources efficiently.
Bureaucratic structures require
specialization of jobs leading to
economies of scales as workers and
employees function and work
repetitively with increased efficiency,
proficiency and productivity.. 

BUREAUCRACY
Economies of Scale
 Departments share resources efficiently.
Bureaucratic structures require
specialization of jobs leading to
economies of scales as workers and
employees function and work
repetitively with increased efficiency,
proficiency and productivity.. 

BUREAUCRACY
Disadvantages of
Bureaucracy
Absence of Maneuverability
 
This type of structure stops a company
from quickly maneuvering. The changes
in certain procedures must pass through
chains of evaluations and commands
before getting approval. 

BUREAUCRACY
Low Morale - When jobs are specialized,
there is the tendency that it would be
repetitive. This can lead to boredom is
some employees and may also lead to
dissatisfaction. Employees are not
judged on the way they can uniquely
deliver a job but on how they fulfill their
main functions. 

BUREAUCRACY
REFERENCE GROUPS
A Reference group is a group to which we
compare ourselves, Reference groups
such as college freshmen, serve as a
standard to which we measure our
behaviors and attitudes. We use reference
groups in order to guide our behavior and
attitudes and help us to identify social
forms.

REFERENCE GROUPS
 Example:

Reference group from clothing, looks and attitude

REFERENCE GROUPS
Example:

Reference group from skill, norms

( Represented via colors )

REFERENCE GROUPS
SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS
Social Institutions are sometimes
confused with formal organizations, but
they are actually different from each
other. A formal organization is a social
group formed deliberately from specific
goals.

SOCIAL INSTITUTION
A social institution is an abstract which is
an organized system of social norms,
beliefs, values and material objects
formed around the social needs of people

SOCIAL INSTITUTION
SOCIAL INSTITUTION CONSIST
OF THE COMBINATION OF
CERTAIN RELATED TYPE PARTS
INTO THE CONFIGURATION

SOCIAL INSTITUTION
1. Common reciprocating attitudes and
their conventionalized behavior
patterns.
2. Cultural objects of symbolic value
which represents social institutions
3. Cultural objects possessing utilitarian
value which satisfy the wants of the
individual

SOCIAL INSTITUTION
SOCIETIES
Society 
Is a group of people who share a defined
territory and a culture. Society includes
the totality of social organization and
the complex network of interconnected,
interdependent, and overlapping social
relationships.

SOCIETIES
Perrucci and Knudsen (1983:9) point out
two aspects of the reality and society,
namely:
1. Society is external to the individual. The
norms, beliefs, and values or culture of the
society precede the individuals who are
born into or join the society. The culture
persist even after the individuals have died
or left.

SOCIETIES
2. The members perceive society and its
experiences as a constraint upon their
lives.

SOCIETIES
 STUDY GUIDE
1. Social Group
2. Social Organization
3. Social Structure
4. Social Function
5. Primary-Secondary Group
6. Gemeinschaft and Gesellschaft
7. In-group and Out-group
8. Formal-Informal Group
9. Bureaucracy
10. Reference Group
11. Social Institution and Society
ANY QUESTIONS?
THANK YOU!