are used to

express complex ideas by:

The
complex
sentence
book
Sue Palmer
 are used to
express complex ideas by:

* showing how ideas and/or events are

related to each other

* providing extra information about

certain words or phrases.

A consists
of a main clause and one or
more subordinate clauses.
 ple 1
sim nce
te
s
Clauses 1 A clause
n A clause is has a
se
a single idea subject.
or event. What is s
The knight killed a clause? The knight killed
the dragon.
the dragon. The subject usually
• carries out any action suggested by the verb
• is a noun, noun phrase or pronoun.
A simple sentence
= one clause A clause may contain
further detail.
A clause has only one
verb (or verb chain). One mistythe morning, the
handsome knight knight
in shining armour
v
The knight killed the dragon. killedkilled
the ferocious
the
dragon outside
dragon
its mountain lair.
v The extra detail may be:
Did the knight kill the dragon? • adjectival (telling more about a noun)
• adverbial – answering the questions how? where? when? A A
• But, as long as there’s only one verb, there’s only one clause.
 ple 2
sim nce
te
s
Clauses 2
n
se
an object a complement
A clause
s v O
may have s v c
The knight killed the dragon. The knight felt strangely sad.
An object usually:
s v c
• has something done to it The dragon had been a mighty beast.
• is a noun, noun phrase or pronoun.

A clause can be A complement usually:

• occurs with a verb like ‘be’ which

active or passive expresses state

• refers back to the subject
• is a noun or adjectival phrase.

s v O s v A
The knight killed the dragon. The dragon was killed.by the knight
subject ‘actively’ does something subject ‘passively has In a passive sentence you do
not have to say ‘whodunnit’.
something done to it.

The passive is often e.g. England was last invaded in 1066.

Morning dress is worn on formal occasions.
found in formal,
impersonal writing. The equipment is operated by means of an
electric switch.
 l ex
s
m p
co ten
c e
Subordinate and main clauses
n
se main clause:
• expresses one idea
When he killed the dragon, or event
• makes sense on its
the knight felt strangely sad own
• could be a simple
sentence.
because it had been a mighty beast.

subordinate clause: The main and

• expresses one idea or subordinate clauses go
event but
together to make a
• does not make sense on
its own
• needs a main clause to
There are several sorts of
complete the sense. subordinate clause.
 l ex
s
m p
co ten
c e
Subordinate clauses 1 Grammatical name
= adverbial clauses

n
se
when? how?
Because
Whenit he
hadkilled
beenthe
a mighty
dragonbeast before
wh en as though
ince
after s r as if
e
the knight felt strangely sad whenev
as
while
until where?
when
because it he
hadkilled
beenthe dragon.
a mighty beast. as…
as soon
where
wherever
Some subordinate clauses: why?
• start with a conjunction on wha
which make a clear link because conditi t
as on?
to the main clause since so that although
in order that if
• can usually be moved when
around the sentence. These are examples of subordinating
conjunctions.
in case

Try moving these clauses e.g. The knight felt strangely sad
around to vary the
rhythm or emphasis of a when he killed the dragon,
sentence. because it had been a mighty beast.
 l e x
s
m p
co ten
c e
Subordinate clauses 2 Grammatical name
= relative clause

n
se that had terrorised th
,,who was called Sir George, e village.

The knight killed the dragon .

Some subordinate clauses:

The knight,, who was called
• are embedded in the main Sir George,…
clause The knight,, whom we met on
• give more information about page 2,…
a noun
The knight,, whose name was
• begin with a pronoun, which George,…
refers back to the noun, e.g.
…the dragon which had
terrorised the village.
who people which animals
or things …the dragon,, that had
that either terrorised the village.

These pronouns may change their form, depending
on the job they’re doing in the sentence:
S subject – who
O object – whom (we met whom)
possessive – whose
Embedded clauses often
need commas to separate
them off from the main
clause.
 l ex
s
m p
co ten
c e
Subordinate clauses 3 Grammatical name
= non-finite clauses

n
se
Exhausted
ed by the battle,
Snortinging loudly,
es.
Tthhee ddra
rag Sir George fell to his kne
goonn ccoollllaappsseedd oonn
the ground.
The dragon, snorting
Some subordinate clauses: loudly, collapsed on
• don’t have a complete verb the ground.
chain, just the ing or ed part
• give more information about Sir George, exhausted
a noun in the main clause by the battle, fell to
• can come before the noun his knees.
or
can be embedded after it. This suggests the sun was lying outside the lair.

e.g. Lying outside the dragon’s lair, the

When using these clauses, rising sun awoke Sir George.
make sure it is clear which
noun they are about. Lying outside the dragon’s lair, Sir
George was awoken by the rising sun.
 Compound sentences
It was midnight and He was tired but

George lay awake.

he could not sleep.
The coordinating
When main clauses are Words are often omitted
conjunctions are linked by coordinating from the second clause
for and nor conjunctions, it is to make the sentence
called a compound less clumsy, e.g.
but or yet so sentence.
he could is ‘understood’.
(FAN
FA N BOYS
BOYS)

so He could go home or
The dragon was dead

his work was done. look for another dragon.

and , but , so , or are very

common in speech and writing, In formal writing, coordinating
but subordinating conjunctions can conjunctions cannot come at the
often make clearer links. beginning of a sentence.
(See also The Standard English Book.)
 Punctuating sentences
Sentence Commas are used to
boundaries are show breaks between
shown by Punctuation marks clauses when:
. ? ! are used to show • a subordinate clause
grammatical comes before the
boundaries, to help main clause
Boundaries make something • the writer wishes
between main clauses clear. to signal a slight
cannot usually be pause
marked by a comma. • an embedded clause
Instead choose from tells you more about
a noun (rather
- ; : ( ) than defining it).
As he left, George looked up.
The sun was blood red ;, it looked like He gasped, and reached for his sword.
a fiery dragon. The sun, which had turned blood red,
looked like a fiery dragon.
see ‘The Comma Splice’ in The Punctuation Book.
This clause defines which beast it was.

But clauses don’t always e.g. Had the beast that he had just slain
need commas to separate fled to the sun?
them off from the main Would it glower at him until the day
clause. he died?
 Who was George?
non-finite
relative
clause There never was a Sir George who becoming particularly popular with clause

killed a dragon. The real George, as English Christians, who made up relative
clause
adverbial
clause
far as anyone knows, was a cavalry stories about George and a ferocious
officer in the Roman army about 1,700 dragon. They even claimed he was
years ago, and a member of the born in Coventry!
non-finite
clause
Christian church. Born in Turkey, he
relative
travelled with the army to the Holy During the Middle Ages, the flag to clause
adverbial Land where, in 303 AD, he was in which English soldiers rallied during which
defines
clause charge of troops near Palestine. battle was a red cross on a white the flag
-so no
background. It became known as the comma

adverbial
Then the emperor of Rome began to “cross of St George”.
clause persecute the Christians. When he relative
ordered the burning of Christian Eventually, in 1348, George was
clause
which
scriptures and churches, George tore declared the patron saint of England – defines
soldier
adverbial down the official notice and refused to a strange fate for a Turkish soldier -so no
comma
clause
follow the decree. Summoned to who died long before the country of
relative Rome, he harangued the emperor, who England came into existence.
clause condemned him to death by torture.
adverbial
clause
Although he suffered terribly, George
would not give up his faith. He died
on 23rd April 304 AD, and in 495 was
named a saint. Over the centuries his
story travelled around the world,
 simple sentence
one clause

compound sentence
main clauses linked by
coordinating conjunctions

main clause + one or

more subordinate clauses
Skeleton Poster Books
for GRAMMAR

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