Cryptography

Presented by Blances Sanchez

INTE 30073 Information Assurance and Security 2
Table of Contents
1. Cryptography
2. History of Cryptography
3. Foundations of Cryptology
4. Cryptographic Systems
5. Cipher Methods
1. Substitution Cipher
2. Transposition Cipher
3. Exclusive OR
4. Vernam Cipher
5. Hash Functions
1. Cryptography
Yet it may roundly be asserted that human ingenuity cannot concoct a
cipher which human ingenuity cannot resolve.

- EDGAR ALLAN POE, THE GOLD BUG

Cryptographic techniques used in everyday life
• Word puzzle
• Stenography
• Knitting patterns
• Peace
• 01110000 01100101 01100001
01100011 01100101
• In knitting, that would be
k1, p3, k5, p2, k2, p1, k1, p1, k1, p2,
k4, p1.
Key Terms
• Cryptanalysis: The process of obtaining the plaintext message from a ciphertext message
without knowing the keys used to perform the encryption.

• Cryptography: The process of making and using codes to secure information.

• Cryptology: The field of science that encompasses cryptography and cryptanalysis.

Cryptography
• Cryptography comes from the Greek words kryptos, meaning “hidden,” and graphein,
meaning “to write,” and involves making and using codes to secure messages.
• Cryptography uses mathematical algorithms that are usually known to all.
Cryptography
• Cryptographic systems are generally classified along three independent dimensions
1. The type of operation used for transforming plaintext to ciphertext
• substitution, transposition
2. The number of keys used
• one key, two keys
3. The way in which the plaintext is processed
• block cipher, stream cipher
Cryptanalysis
• Cryptanalysis involves cracking or breaking encrypted messages back into their
unencrypted origins.
Cryptography can be used to provide:
1. Confidentiality - ensure data is read only by authorized parties,
2. Data integrity - ensure data wasn't altered between sender and recipient,
3. Authentication - ensure data originated from a particular party.
2. History of Cryptography
Hieroglyph - The Oldest Cryptographic Technique
• Some 4000 years ago, the Egyptians used to communicate by messages written in
hieroglyph.
• This code was the secret known only to the scribes who used to transmit messages on
behalf of the kings.
Hieroglyph - The Oldest Cryptographic Technique
• Later, the scholars moved on to using simple mono-alphabetic substitution ciphers during
500 to 600 BC.
• This involved replacing alphabets of message with other alphabets with some secret rule.
This rule became a key to retrieve the message back from the garbled message.
• The earlier Roman method of cryptography, popularly known as the Caesar Shift Cipher.
Steganography
• In this method, people not only want to protect the secrecy of an information by
concealing it, but they also want to make sure any unauthorized person gets no evidence
that the information even exists.
• A plaintext message is hidden in something
• For example, invisible watermarking.
Steganography
• In steganography, an unintended recipient or an intruder is unaware of the fact that
observed data contains hidden information.
• In cryptography, an intruder is normally aware that data is being communicated, because
they can see the coded/scrambled message.
Steganography
• Character marking
• Selected letters of printed or type written are overwritten in pencil.
• The marks are ordinarily not visible unless the paper held at an angle to bright light.
• Invisible ink
• Pin punctures
• Small pin punctures on selected letter are ordinarily not visible unless the paper is
held up in front of a light.
• Typewriter correction ribbon
• Used between lines typed with a black ribbon, the result of typing with the correction
tape are visible only under a strong light
3. Foundations of Cryptology
Foundations of Cryptology
Date Event

1900 B.C. Egyptian scribes used nonstandard hieroglyphs while inscribing clay tablets;
this is the first documented use of written cryptography.
1500 B.C. Mesopotamian cryptography surpassed that of the Egyptians, as
demonstrated by a tablet that was discovered to contain an encrypted
formula for pottery glazes; the tablet used symbols that have different
meanings depending on the context.
500 B.C. Hebrew scribes writing the book of Jeremiah used a reversed alphabet
substitution cipher known as ATBASH.
Foundations of Cryptology
Date Event

487 B.C. The Spartans of Greece developed the skytale, a system consisting of a strip
of papyrus wrapped around a wooden staff. Messages were written down
the length of the staff, and the papyrus was unwrapped. The decryption
process involved wrapping the papyrus around a shaft of similar diameter.
50 B.C Julius Caesar used a simple substitution cipher to secure military and
government communications. To form an encrypted text, Caesar shifted
the letters of the alphabet three places. In addition to this
monoalphabetic substitution cipher, Caesar strengthened his encryption
by substituting Greek letters for Latin letters.
Foundations of Cryptology
Date Event

Fourth to sixth The Kama Sutra of Vatsayana listed cryptography as the 44th and 45th of
centuries the 64 arts (yogas) that men and women should practice: (44) The art of
understanding writing in cipher, and the writing of words in a peculiar way;
(45) The art of speaking by changing the forms of the word.
725 Abu ‘Abd al-Rahman al-Khalil ibn Ahmad ibn ‘Amr ibn Tammam al
Farahidi al-Zadi al Yahmadi wrote a book (now lost) on cryptography; he
also solved a Greek cryptogram by guessing the plaintext introduction.
855 Abu Wahshiyyaan-Nabati, a scholar, published several cipher alphabets that
were used to encrypt magic formulas.
Foundations of Cryptology
Date Event

1250 Roger Bacon, an English monk, wrote Epistle of Roger Bacon on the Secret
Works of Art and of Nature and Also on the Nullity of Magic, in which he
described several simple ciphers
1392 The Equatorie of the Planetis, an early text possibly written by Geoffrey
Chaucer, contained a passage in a simple substitution cipher.
1412 Subhalasha, a 14-volume Arabic encyclopedia, contained a section on
cryptography, including both substitution and transposition ciphers, as well as
ciphers with multiple substitutions, a technique that had never been used
before.
Foundations of Cryptology
Date Event

1466 Leon Battista Alberti, the father of Western cryptography, worked with
polyalphabetic substitution and designed a cipher disk.
1518 Johannes Trithemius wrote the first printed book on cryptography and
invented a steganographic cipher, in which each letter was represented as a
word taken from a succession of columns. He also described a polyalphabetic
encryption method using a rectangular substitution format that is now
commonly used. He is credited with introducing the method of changing
substitution alphabets with each letter as it is deciphered.
1553 Giovan Batista Bellaso introduced the idea of the passphrase (password) as
a key for encryption. His polyalphabetic encryption method is misnamed for
another person who later used the technique; it is called the Vigenère Cipher
today.
Foundations of Cryptology
Date Event

1563 Giovanni Battista Porta wrote a classification text on encryption methods,

categorizing them as transposition, substitution, and symbol substitution.
1623 Sir Francis Bacon described an encryption method that employed one of the
first uses of steganography; he encrypted his messages by slightly changing
the typeface of a random text so that each letter of the cipher was hidden
within the text.
1790s Thomas Jefferson created a 26-letter wheel cipher, which he used for official
communications while ambassador to France; the concept of the wheel cipher
would be reinvented in 1854 and again in 1913
Foundations of Cryptology
Date Event

1854 Charles Babbage reinvented Thomas Jefferson’s wheel cipher

1861–5 During the U.S. Civil War, Union forces used a substitution encryption method
based on specific words, and the Confederacy used a polyalphabetic cipher
whose solution had been published before the start of the war.
1914-17 Throughout World War I, the Germans, British, and French used a series
of transposition and substitution ciphers in radio communications. All
sides expended considerable effort to try to intercept and decode
communications, and thereby created the science of cryptanalysis. British
cryptographers broke the Zimmerman Telegram, in which the Germans
offered Mexico U.S. territory in return for Mexico’s support. This decryption
helped to bring the United States into the war.
Foundations of Cryptology
Date Event

1917 William Frederick Friedman, the father of U.S. cryptanalysis, and his wife,
Elizabeth, were employed as civilian cryptanalysts by the U.S. government.
Friedman later founded a school for cryptanalysis in Riverbank, Illinois.
1917 Gilbert S. Vernam, an AT&T employee, invented a polyalphabetic cipher
machine that used a nonrepeating random key.
1919 Hugo Alexander Koch filed a patent in the Netherlands for a rotor-based
cipher machine; in 1927, Koch assigned the patent rights to Arthur Scherbius,
the inventor of the Enigma machine.
Foundations of Cryptology
Date Event

1927-33 During Prohibition, criminals in the United States began using cryptography
to protect the privacy of messages used in illegal activities
1937 The Japanese developed the Purple machine, which was based on
principles similar to those of Enigma, and used mechanical relays from
telephone systems to encrypt diplomatic messages. By 1940, a team
headed by William Friedman had broken the code generated by this machine
and constructed a machine that could quickly decode Purple’s ciphers
1939-42 The Allies secretly broke the Enigma cipher, undoubtedly shortening World
War II.
Foundations of Cryptology
Date Event

1942 Navajo code talkers entered World War II; in addition to speaking a
language that was unknown outside a relatively small group within the United
States, the Navajos developed code words for subjects and ideas that did not
exist in their native tongue.
1948 Claude Shannon suggested using frequency and statistical analysis in the
solution of substitution ciphers.
1970 Dr. Horst Feistel led an IBM research team in the development of the Lucifer
cipher.
Foundations of Cryptology
Date Event

1976 A design based on Lucifer was chosen by the U.S. National Security Agency as
the Data Encryption Standard, which found worldwide acceptance.
1976 Whitfield Diffie and Martin Hellman introduced the idea of public-key
cryptography.
1977 Ronald Rivest, Adi Shamir, and Leonard Adleman developed a practical
public-key cipher both for confidentiality and digital signatures; the RSA family
of computer encryption algorithms was born.
Foundations of Cryptology
Date Event

1978 The initial RSA algorithm was published in Communications of the ACM.

1991 Phil Zimmermann released the first version of PGP (Pretty Good Privacy); PGP
was released as freeware and became the worldwide standard for public
cryptosystems.
2000 Rijndael’s cipher was selected as the Advanced Encryption Standard.
Terminologies
• Algorithm: The mathematical formula or method used to convert an unencrypted
message into an encrypted message. This sometimes refers to the programs that enable
the cryptographic processes.

• Bit stream cipher: An encryption method that involves converting plaintext to ciphertext
one bit at a time.

• Block cipher: An encryption method that involves dividing the plaintext into blocks or sets
of bits and then converting the plaintext to ciphertext one block at a time.
Terminologies
• Cipher: When used as a verb, the transformation of the individual components
(characters, bytes, or bits) of an unencrypted message into encrypted components or vice
versa (see decipher and encipher); when used as a noun, the process of encryption or the
algorithm used in encryption, and a term synonymous with cryptosystem.

• Ciphertext or cryptogram: The unintelligible encrypted or encoded message resulting

from an encryption.

• Code: The process of converting components (words or phrases) of an unencrypted

message into encrypted components.
Terminologies
• Decipher: See Decryption.

• Decryption: The process of converting an encoded or enciphered message (ciphertext)

back to its original readable form (plaintext). Also referred to as deciphering.

• Encipher: See Encryption.

• Encryption: The process of converting an original message (plaintext) into a form that
cannot be used by unauthorized individuals (ciphertext). Also referred to as enciphering.
Terminologies
• Key or cryptovariable: The information used in conjunction with the algorithm to create
the ciphertext from the plaintext; it can be a series of bits used in a mathematical
algorithm or the knowledge of how to manipulate the plaintext. Sometimes called a
cryptovariable.

• Keyspace: The entire range of values that can be used to construct an individual key.

• Link encryption: A series of encryptions and decryptions between a number of systems,

wherein each system in a network decrypts the message sent to it and then reencrypts the
message using different keys and sends it to the next neighbor. This process continues
until the message reaches the final destination.
Terminologies
• Plaintext or cleartext: The original unencrypted message that is encrypted and is the
result of successful decryption.

• Steganography: The process of hiding messages; for example, hiding a message within
the digital encoding of a picture or graphic so that it is almost impossible to detect that the
hidden message even exists.

• Work factor: The amount of effort (usually expressed in units of time) required to perform
cryptanalysis on an encoded message.
4. Cryptographic Systems
Cryptographic Systems are categorized according to:
1. The operation used in transferring plaintext to ciphertext:
• Substitution: each element in the plaintext is mapped into another element
• Transposition: the elements in the plaintext are re-arranged.
2. The number of keys used:
• Symmetric (private- key) : both the sender and receiver use the same key
• Asymmetric (public-key) : sender and receiver use different key
3. The way the plaintext is processed :
• Block cipher : inputs are processed one block at a time, producing a corresponding
output block.
• Stream cipher: inputs are processed continuously, producing one element at a time
5. Cipher Methods
Cipher Methods
• There are two methods of encrypting plaintext: the bit stream method or the block cipher
method.

• Bit stream cipher: An encryption method that involves converting plaintext to

ciphertext one bit at a time.

• Block cipher: An encryption method that involves dividing the plaintext into blocks
or sets of bits and then converting the plaintext to ciphertext one block at a time.
Cipher Methods
Bit Stream Method
In the bit stream method, each bit in the
plaintext is transformed into a cipher bit one bit
at a time.
Bit stream methods commonly use algorithm
functions like the exclusive OR operation (XOR)
Block Cipher Method
In the block cipher method, the message is
divided into blocks—for example, sets of 8-, 16-,
32-, or 64-bit blocks—and then each block of
plaintext bits is transformed into an encrypted
block of cipher bits using an algorithm and a key.
Block methods can use substitution,
transposition, XOR, or some combination of
these operations
Bit Stream Method
• In the bit stream method, each bit in the plaintext is transformed into a cipher bit one bit
at a time.
• Bit stream methods commonly use algorithm functions like the exclusive OR operation
(XOR)
Block Cipher Method
• In the block cipher method, the message is divided into blocks—for example, sets of 8-,
16-, 32-, or 64-bit blocks—and then each block of plaintext bits is transformed into an
encrypted block of cipher bits using an algorithm and a key.
• block methods can use substitution, transposition, XOR, or some combination of these
operations
Substitution Cipher
Substitution Cipher/Substitution Technique
• A substitution technique is one in which the letters of plaintext are replaced by other
letters or by number of symbols.
• A substitution cipher exchanges one value for another—for example, it might exchange a
letter in the alphabet with the letter three values to the right, or it might substitute one bit
for another bit four places to its left.
Caesar Cipher
• The earliest known use of a substitution cipher, and the simplest, was by Julius Caesar.
• It is a mono-alphabetic cipher wherein each letter of the plaintext is substituted by
another letter to form the ciphertext. It is a simplest form of substitution cipher scheme.

• monoalphabetic substitution A substitution cipher that only incorporates a single

alphabet in the encryption process
Caesar Cipher
• This cryptosystem is generally referred to as the Shift Cipher. The concept is to replace
each alphabet by another alphabet which is ‘shifted’ by some fixed number between 0 and
25.
• For this type of scheme, both sender and receiver agree on a ‘secret shift number’ for
shifting the alphabet. This number which is between 0 and 25 becomes the key of
encryption.
• The name ‘Caesar Cipher’ is occasionally used to describe the Shift Cipher when the ‘shift
of three’ is used.
Process of Caesar Cipher
• The Caesar cipher involves replacing each letter of the alphabet with the letter standing
three places further down the alphabet.
• For example:
Plain meet me after the toga party
Cipher PHHW PH DIWHU WKH WRJD SDUWB
Process of Caesar Cipher
• Note that the alphabet is wrapped around, so that the letter following Z is A.

• If we assign a numerical equivalent to each letter (a =1 , b = 2), then the algorithm can be
expressed as follows.
C = E(p) = (p + 3) mod 26
P = D(c) = (c – 3) mod 26
Process of Shift Cipher
• Encryption

• Decryption
Security Value
• Caesar Cipher is not a secure cryptosystem because there are only 26 possible keys to try
out. An attacker can carry out an exhaustive key search with available limited computing
resources.
Monoalphabetic Cipher
• The Caesar cipher is far from secure, with only 25 possible keys.
• A dramatic increase in the key space can be archived by allowing an arbitrary substitution.
• There are 26! or greater than 4x1026 possible keys.
• Monoalphabetic ciphers are easy to break because they reflect the frequency data of the
original alphabet.
• It is very weak cipher.
Polyalphabetic Ciphers
• Polyalphabetic Cipher is a substitution cipher in which the cipher alphabet for the plain
alphabet may be different at different places during the encryption process.
• The next three examples, Playfair, Hill Cipher and Vigenère Cipher are polyalphabetic
ciphers.
Polyalphabetic Ciphers
• Another way to improve on the simple monoalphabetic techniques is to use different
monoalphabetic substitution as on proceeds through the plaintext message.
• The best-known, and on of the simplest, such algorithm is referred to as the Vigenere
cipher
• Example of encryption
key decept Iv e d ec e pt I v edec ept I ve
plaintext weared Is c o v e r eds a v eyy our s elf
ciphertext Z I C V T W QN G R Z G V T W A V Z H C QT G L M G J
Vigenère Cipher
• The cipher is implemented using the Vigenère square (or table), also known as a tabula
recta—a term invented by Johannes Trithemius in the 1500s.
• This scheme of cipher uses a text string (say, a word) as a key, which is then used for doing
a number of shifts on the plaintext.
The Modern Vigenère Tableau
• The Vigenère cipher uses a 26×26 table with A to Z as the row heading and column
heading.
• The first row of this table has the 26 English letters.
• Starting with the second row, each row has the letters shifted to the left one position in a
cyclic way. For example, when B is shifted to the first position on the second row, the letter
A moves to the end.
Polyalphabetic Ciphers
Security Value
• Vigenere Cipher was designed by tweaking the standard Caesar cipher to reduce the
effectiveness of cryptanalysis on the ciphertext and make a cryptosystem more robust.
• It is significantly more secure than a regular Caesar Cipher.
• In the history, it was regularly used for protecting sensitive political and military
information. It was referred to as the unbreakable cipher due to the difficulty it posed to
the cryptanalysis.
Playfair Cipher
• a 5X5 matrix of letters based on a keyword
• fill in letters of keyword (sans duplicates)
• fill rest of matrix with other letters
• invented in 1854 by Sir Charles Wheatstone
Playfair Cipher
• In this scheme, pairs of letters are encrypted, instead of single letters as in the case of
simple substitution cipher.
• In playfair cipher, initially a key table is created. The key table is a 5×5 grid of alphabets
that acts as the key for encrypting the plaintext. Each of the 25 alphabets must be unique
and one letter of the alphabet (usually J) is omitted from the table as we need only 25
alphabets instead of 26. If the plaintext contains J, then it is replaced by I.
Playfair Cipher
• The best-known multiple-letter encryption cipher is the playfair, which treats diagram in
the plaintext as single units and translates these units into cipher diagram.
• The playfair algorithm is based on the use of a 5x5 matrix of letters constructed using a
keyword.
M O N A R
C H Y B D
E F G I/J K
L P Q S T
U V W X Z
Playfair Cipher
Plaintext in encrypted two letters at a time, according to the following rules :
1. Repeating plaintext letters that would fall in the same pair are separated with a filler
letter, such as x, so that balloon would be enciphered as ba lx lo on.
2. Plaintext letters that fall in the same row of the matrix are each replaced by the letter to
the right, with the first element of the row circularly following the last. For example, ar is
encrypted as RM
3. Plaintext letters that fall in the same column are each replaced by the letter beneath, with
the top element of the row circularly following the last. For example, mu is encrypted as
CM
4. Otherwise, each plaintext letter is replaced by the letter that lies in its own row and the
column occupied by the other plaintext letter. Thus, hs becomes BP
Security Value
• It is also a substitution cipher and is difficult to break compared to the simple substitution
cipher. As in case of substitution cipher, cryptanalysis is possible on the Playfair cipher as
well, however it would be against 625 possible pairs of letters (25x25 alphabets) instead of
26 different possible alphabets.
• The Playfair cipher was used mainly to protect important, yet non-critical secrets, as it is
quick to use and requires no special equipment.
Hill Cipher
• Hill cipher takes m successive plaintext letters and substitutes for them m ciphertext
letters
• For m = 3, Hill cipher can be described as follows:
Hill Cipher
• This can be expressed in term of vectors and matrices:

• Decryption requires using the inverse of the matrix K

Hill Cipher
• Generally, the below-mentioned structure of numbers and letters are used in the Hill
Cipher Encryption, but this can be modified as per requirement.
Hill Cipher 2x2 example
• The primary step starts with a keyword that we must convert into a matrix.
• Depending on the length of the keyword, if it is shorter than three words, then fill it up in
alphabetical order. And for longer than 4 words, the first four letters are used in the
matrix.

• Input Message = SHORTER EXAMPLE

• Key = HILL
Transposition Cipher
Transposition Cipher/ Transposition Technique
• It is considered as classical transposition or permutation ciphers.
• These hide the message by rearranging the letter order.
• Without altering the actual letters used.
• Can recognize these since have the same frequency distribution as the original text
Rail Fence Cipher
• Write message letters out diagonally over a number of rows
Row Transposition Ciphers
• A more complex scheme
• Write letters of message out in rows over a specified number of columns
• Then reorder the columns according to some key before reading off the rows
Exclusive OR
Exclusive OR operation (XOR)
• A function within Boolean algebra used as an encryption function in which two bits are
compared. If the two bits are identical, the result is a binary 0; otherwise, the result is a
binary 1.
Exclusive OR operation (XOR)
• The exclusive OR operation (XOR) is a function of Boolean algebra in which two bits are
compared and a binary result is generated. XOR encryption is a very simple symmetric
cipher that is used in many applications where security is not a defined requirement.

• CAT
• Decimal: 67 – 65 – 86
• Binary: 01000011 01000001 01010110
ASCII Table
Exclusive OR operation (XOR) Truth Table
Exclusive OR operation (XOR) Rules
Vernam Cipher
Vernam Cipher
• A cryptographic technique developed at AT&T and known as the “one-time pad,” this
cipher uses a set of characters for encryption operations only one time and then discards
it.
• Developed by Gilbert Vernam in 1917 while working at AT&T Bell Labs, uses a set of
characters only one time for each encryption process (hence the name one-time pad).
Vernam Cipher / One Time Pad
• The length of the keyword is same as the length of the plaintext.
• The keyword is a randomly generated string of alphabets.
• The keyword is used only once.
Process of Vernam Cipher
• The pad values are added to numeric values representing the plaintext that needs to be
encrypted.
• Each character of the plaintext is turned into a number and a pad value for that position is
added to it.
• The resulting sum for that character is then converted back to a ciphertext letter for
transmission.
• If the sum of the two values exceeds 26, then 26 is subtracted from the total.
• The process of keeping a computed number within a specific range is called a
modulo; thus, requiring that all numbers be in the range of 1–26 is referred to as
modulo 26.
Process of Vernam Cipher
Security Value
• One-time Pad − Impossible to Break
• Let us say, we encrypt the name “point” with a one-time pad. It is a 5 letter text.
• To break the ciphertext by brute force, you need to try all possibilities of keys and conduct
computation for (26 x 26 x 26 x 26 x 26) = 265 = 11881376 times. That’s for a message with
5 alphabets.
Book-Based Ciphers
Book Cipher
• In a book cipher, the ciphertext consists of a list of codes representing the page number,
line number, and word number of the plaintext word.
• The recipient of a running key cipher must first know which book is used.
• One may send the message 259,19,8; 22,3,8; 375,7,4; 394,17,2.
• turns to page 259, finds line 19, and selects the eighth word
Running Key Cipher
• Similar in concept to the book cipher is the running key cipher, which uses a book for
passing the key to a cipher that is similar to the Vigenère cipher
Template Cipher
• The template cipher or perforated page cipher is not strictly an encryption cipher, but
more of an example of steganography.
• The template cipher involves the use of a hidden message in a book, letter, or other
message.
• The receiver must use a page with a specific number of holes cut into it and place it over
the book page or letter to extract the hidden message
Hash Functions
Assignment
• Caesar Cipher
• 5 Right Shift
• Plaintext Messages:
• BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY
• POLYTECHNIC UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES
• Vigenere Cipher
• Key: SECURITY
• Plaintext Messages:
• DATA ANALYTICS
• TAGUIG BRANCH
Assignment
• Playfair Cipher
• Key: ASSURANCE
• Plaintext Message: HIDE THE GOLD IN THE TREE STUMP
• Hill Cipher 2x2
• Key: GOOD
• Plaintext Message: HAPPY NEW YEAR
• Row Transposition Cipher
• Key: 6 3 4 1 2 5 7
• Plaintext Message: LASER BEAMS CAN BE MODULATED TO CARRY MORE
INTELLIGENCE THAN RADIO
Assignment
• Exclusive OR
• Key: Z
• Plaintext Message: THREE ZEBRAS IN THE ZOO
• One-Time Pad
• Key: E L N A G M S T F H P Q K
• Plaintext Message: TODAY IS MONDAY
References
• https://www.nytimes.com/1991/10/13/weekinreview/ideas-trends-tied-up-in-knots-cr
yptographers-test-their-limits.html
• https://gannetdesigns.com/embedding-meaning-in-your-knitting-or-other-crafts/othe
r-methods-of-encryption/
• https://pages.mtu.edu/~shene/NSF-4/Tutorial/VIG/Vig-Base.html
• https://www.cgisecurity.com/owasp/html/ch13.html
• https://www.jigsawacademy.com/blogs/cyber-security/hill-cipher/
Thank you!