Biological

molecules
 Mostbiological molecules are made from
covalent combinations of six important
elements, whose chemical symbols are
CHNOPS. the letters stand for the chemical
abbreviations of carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen,
oxygen, phosphorus, and sulfur..

 Biological molecules, or biomolecules, are

built by joining atoms through covalent
bonds.
The FOUR Classes of Large Biomolecules
(most important ):
• All living things are made up of four classes of
large biological molecules especially
macromolecules like:
• Carbohydrates
• Lipids
• Protein
• Nucleic Acids

• Macromolecules are large molecules composed

of thousands of covalently bonded atoms

• Molecular structure and function are inseparable

• Macromolecules are polymers, built
from monomers
• A polymer is a long molecule consisting of many
similar building blocks
• These small building-block molecules are called
monomers
• four classes of life’s organic molecules are
polymers
Carbohydrates
Proteins
Fatty Acids
Nucleic acids
Some definitions to keep in mind…
 Organic molecule: contains at least C (carbon) and H
(hydrogen)

 Macromolecule (“giant molecule”): large

biological molecule, such as a protein or nucleic
acid

 Monomer: a relatively simple molecule which is used as

a basic building block for the synthesis of a polymer.
Many monomers join together make a polymer.

 Polymer: a giant molecule made from many

similar repeating subunits joined together in a
Monomers and polymers
The Biomolecules of Life
Carbohydrates
 Molecular formula: shows the atoms an
its amount
 Structuralformula: shows the
arrangements of the atoms using a
diagram.
 Ring structure: When the chain
´closes´
 Carbohydrates
Building Blocks
 Composed of carbon (C), hydrogen
(H), and oxygen (O) in a 1:2:1 ratio
C6H12O6
Functions:
 Main source of QUICK energy for living
things (Monosaccharides)
 Energy Storage– (polysaccharides)
 in animals glycogen is stored in the
liver
 in plants, starch is stored in the ROOTS
 Structural– to build cell walls These three polysaccharides are
 cellulose (plants) polymers of carbohydrates and are all
made of glucose, a monosaccharide.
 chitin (fungi)
The glucose is just arranged differently
 Carbohydrates Serve as Fuel
& Building Material
• Carbohydrates include sugars and the polymers
of sugars

• The simplest carbohydrates are

monosaccharides, or single sugars

• Carbohydrate macromolecules are

polysaccharides, polymers composed of many
sugar building blocks

16
Carbohydrates
 Sugars: Monosaccharides
• Monosaccharides have molecular
formulas that are usually multiples of CH2O

• Glucose (C6H12O6) is the most common

monosaccharide

• Monosaccharides are classified by

– The location of the carbonyl group
– The number of carbons in the carbon
skeleton

18
Formation of the glycosidic
bond: Condensation
Monosaccharides have to major functions:
• Commonly used as a source of energy
• Are important as building blocks for larger molecules
• Monosaccharides and disaccharides are sugars.
 Sugars: Disaccharides
• A disaccharide is formed when a dehydration
reaction joins two monosaccharides

• This covalent bond is called a glycosidic linkage

20
Synthesizing Maltose & Sucrose

21
 Polysaccharides
• Polysaccharides, the
polymers of sugars,
have storage and
structural roles

• The structure and

function of a
polysaccharide are
determined by its
sugar monomers and
the positions of
glycosidic linkages
22
 Types of Polysaccharides: Storage

• Starch, a storage
polysaccharide of
plants, consists
entirely of glucose
monomers
• Plants store surplus
starch as granules
within chloroplasts
and other plastids
• The simplest form of
starch is amylose
23
 Types of Polysaccharides: Storage

• Glycogen is a
storage
polysaccharide in
animals
• Humans and other
vertebrates store
glycogen mainly in
liver and muscle cells

24
 Starch and
glycogen
 Starch:
 Mixture of two substances: amylose and amylopectin
 Amylose: 1,4 linked molecules of glucose --- Unbranched
 Amylopectin: 1,4 linked glucose, but with branvhes (1,6 linkages)
 Glycogen:
 Only one type of molecule, similar to amilopectin, but more
branched
 Types of Polysaccharides: Structural

• The polysaccharide cellulose is a major

component of the tough wall of plant cells

• Like starch, cellulose is a polymer of glucose,

but the glycosidic linkages differ

• The difference is based on two ring forms for

glucose: alpha () and beta ()

26
 Cellulose
 Most abundant molecule on the planet (due its
presence in plant cell walls and slow rate of
breakdown)
 Mechanically strong molecule – form cell walls
 Differs from starch and glycogen, because cellulose is
formed by β-glucose.
 This arrangement allows formation of hydrogen
bonds – STRONG!!!!!
Such Elegance!

29
 Polysaccharide
Random Acts of Biology

• Cellulose in human food passes through the

digestive tract as insoluble fiber
• Some microbes use enzymes to digest cellulose
• Many herbivores, from cows to termites, have
symbiotic relationships with these microbes

• Chitin, another structural polysaccharide, is found

in the exoskeleton of arthropods (crunch!)

• Chitin also provides structural support for the cell

walls of many fungi
30
Who knew?

31
Fatty acid structure
Condensation reaction
Roles of
lipids
 Triglycerides
 Energy source
 Energy reserves (storage form of energy – adipose tissue)
 Body insulation and protection around organs
 Sensory qualities (adds flavor and texture to food)
 Contribute to satiety

 Phospholipids
 Form structure of membranes, matrix of cell wall, mielin sheath,
among others
 Carriers of ions across membranes
 Perform many vital functions within the body
Phospholipids are constituents of
membranes
 Phospholipids are composed of a hydrophilic head, which is
attracted to water, and two hydrophobic tails, which repel water.
Because these cells contain molecules that simultaneously attract
and resist water, they are considered amphipathic (both water-
soluble and non-water-soluble).
Different lipids: how do they look?
Peptide bond
 Two amino acids can join together by a peptide bond
 In this reaction one molecule of water is formed
 Dipeptide: molecule formed by two amino acids
 Polypeptide: molecule formed by many amino acids linked
Polypetides are another example of polymers and macromolecules
 Protein molecule may have just one polypeptide chain, or two or
more chains interacting with each other
Structure of proteins
 Primary structure: is the sequence of amino acids in a
polypeptide or protein.

 Secondary structure: is the structure of a protein molecule

resulting from the regular coiling or folding of the chain of amino
acids. E.g. β-pleated sheet α-helix.

 Tertiary structure: is the compact structure of a

proteinmolecule resulting from the three-dimensional coiling of
the already-folded chain of amino acids.
IMPORTANT: different kind of bonds (SEE BOOKLET)

 Quaternary structure: is the three-dimensional arrangement of

two or more polypeptides, or of a polypeptide and a non-protein
component such as haem, in a protein molecule.