Laxmi Institute of Technology

Scanning and Parsing

CSE Department
5th Sem

Presented by : Guided BY:

Riddhi prajapati (130860131044) Mrs.Rinkal prajapati
Sonali patel (130860131038)
Contents :
 Programming language grammars
 classification of grammars
 ambiguity in grammatic specification
Scanning and Parsing
 A scanning is that part of the language
processor that performs lexical
analysis(breaks syntaxes into a series of
tokens) of the input in accordance with a
grammar
 parser is that part that performs syntax

analysis(string of symbols).
Programming language grammars
Grammar is a collection of four tuples, that are
NT(or V),T,P,S.
 NT(or V):A set of symbol are called non-
terminals or variables.

 T:A set of alphabet of letters called

terminals from which we are going to make
the statement that will be the sentences of
language.
Programming language grammars
 P:It is the finite set of production rules. A
finite set of production in LHS --> RHS from.

 S:From set of non-terminals, one of which is

the start symbol conventionally it is S. Syntax
checking process of parser either starts from
this non-terminal S, or stop when this symbol
is found.
classification of grammars
Chomsky Hierarchy:
 Chomsky had suggested four different

classes of phrase structure grammar as

follows:
1) Type 0 grammar
2) Type 1 grammar
3) Type 2 grammar
4) Type 3 grammar
Type 0 (unrestricted grammar)
 This grammar permits production of the form
α→β with α≠ϵ where α and β are sentential
form i.e. any combination of any number of
terminals and non terminals.
 For example,

Grammar G=(V, T, P, S ) where

V={S, B, C},T={A, B, C} and
P = S SB
SB  BC
Ba
Type 1 (context sensitive grammar)
 Every production rule of this grammar α→β
and length of β is greater than or equal to α
except rule S → ϵ. Starting non terminal S
should not appear on right hand side of
production rule.
 For Example,

G=(V, T, P, S ) ,V={S, B, C},T={A, B, C}

P : A AB
AB  AC
C  ab // A=Starting non terminal
Type 2 (context free grammar)
 Every production rule of this grammar is in
form A α means left hand side of
production rule contain only one non
terminal. And RHS contains terminal as well
as non terminal i.e. sentential form.
 Example,

G = ({A, B, C},{a, b}, P, A)

P : A  AB | a
B  AC | b
C  ab
Type 3 (Regular grammar)
 This grammar accepts all rules of CFG but
this grammar is divided into two types. There
are as follows:
1) Left linear grammar : Left most symbols of
RHS of production rule is non terminal.
Example,
G = ({A, B, C},{a, b}, P, A)
P : A  Ba | a
B  Cb | b
Ca|b
Context free grammar(CFG)
 Grammar is a set of formal rules, which
checks the correctness of the sentences or we
can construct the correct sentence using
these rules.
 The grammar is normally consisting of two

types of basic elements namely,

1) Terminal symbols and
2) Non-terminal symbol or auxiliary symbols or
variables.
Context free grammar(CFG)
 Terminal symbols are those which are directly
used in the statements of source language.
 When non-terminals are not used in the

statement but it is used to tell syntax of

statements using set of production rules.
 There are two aspects of the grammar,

1) Generative capacity : Using grammar

2) Grammatical constituents : The formal
definition of grammar is as follows.
Context free grammar(CFG)
Formal definition
 Context free grammar G is the collection of

four tuples.It is shown in below.

G = ( V, T, P, S )
Where,
V : It is finite set of non terminals,
T : It is finite set of terminals of input alphabet
i.e. summation
P: : It is finite set of production rule of the
form,
Non terminals  terminals + non terminals
 Example
A context-free grammar G : S  aSb
S  SS
S 
A derivation:

S  SS  aSbS  abS  ab

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Ambiguity in grammatic specification
 A string x in L(G) may have two or more parse
tree witness S * x. The grammar G is said to
be ambiguous.
 A CFG is called ambiguous if for at least one

word in the language that it generates, there

are two possible derivations :
1) Left most derivation tre
2) Right most derivation tree
Example:
E  E  E | E  E | (E) | a
a  aa

E E  E  E  a E  a EE
 a  a  E  a  a*a
E  E leftmost derivation

a E  E

a a
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Example:
E  E  E | E  E | (E) | a
a  aa
E  EE  E  EE  a EE
 a  aE  a  aa E

E  E
rightmost derivation

E  E a

a a
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 E  E  E | E  E | (E) | a
a  aa
Two derivation trees
E E

E  E E  E

a E  E E  E a

a a a a
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The grammar E  E  E | E  E | (E) | a
is ambiguous because both parse
trees are not same.
string a  aa has two derivation trees

E E

E  E E  E

a E  E E  E a

a a a a
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Solution to remove Ambiguity
Let two grammar G1 and G2
G1 : A  aα | aβ (contains ambiguity)

G2 : A  aA’ ( ambiguity removed)

A’  α | β

So, applying this rule to our grammar then

S  aB | aA
A  aAB | a | b
B  Abb | b
Removing Ambiguity From Grammars
:
 To remove Ambiguity,grammar required to be
rewrite
 Example :

Grammar :S  aB | aA
A  aAB | a | b
B  Abb | b
This grammar is Ambiguous.
So, finally we have grammar with production:

S  aS’
S’  B | A
A  aA’ | b
A’  AB | Є
B  Abb | b

Now, this grammar is an ambiguous.

THANK YOU…