Lecture 1

RETARDED POTENTIAL
 RETARDED POTENTIAL
• The vector electric potential expression represents the
superposition of potentials due to various current
elements (I dl), at distant point P ( at a distance of r ).
• The effect reaching a distant point P from a given element
at an instant t, due to a current value which is followed at
an earlier time.
• This time, of course, depends on the distance traveled
from dl to P .
• Hence, retardation time must be taken into account.
 Retarded Potentials
Consider a charge
distribution as shown
The electric potential
V (R) at a point in
space specified by the
position vector R is
1  v R i  given by
 
V R 
4   ' R'
d '

Ri = position vector of an elemental volume

 ' = elemental volume
v = charge density inside the volume 3
R'  R  R i = distance between the volume and the point
 If the charge density is
time – varying, the
obvious solution is

1  v R i , t 
 
V R ,t 
4   ' R'
d '

Problem: Does not account for reaction time

Any change in the charge distribution will require a finite amount of
time to change the potential
 R'
Delay Time t' 
up
1  v R i , t  t ' 

Retarded Scalar Potential V R ,t  
4   ' R'
d '

Retarded Vector Potential

A R ,t  
 
J R i , t  t '   d '
4  ' R'

Valid under both static and dynamic conditions

 Time – Harmonic Potentials
In a linear system, the parameters all have the same functional dependence on time

Consider a sinusoidal time – varying charge distribution

v   
R i ,t  Re  v R i e

jt 
  
 v R i  = phasor representation of  v R i ,t 

1  v R i  e  j k R '
 
V R 
4   ' R'
d ' V

A R  
   
J R i e  j k R'
k 

4  ' R'
d '
up
• Block diagram for computing fields radiated by electric and magnetic sources.

• Path 1, relates the E and H fields to J and M by integral relations.

• Path 2, relates the A and F potentials to J and M by integral relations.
• The E and H are then determined simply by differentiating A and F.
 LINEAR WIRE ANTENNAS
Basic antenna elements,
 Alternating current element (hertzian dipole or Oscillating dipole),
Linear antenna in which current along its length is assumed to be constant.
 Short dipole,
Linear antenna having length less then λ/4 and current distribution is assumed to be
triangular.
 Half wave dipole,
Linear antenna having length of λ/2 and current distribution is assumed to be sinusoidal.
Usually center fed.
 Quarter wave monopole,
Linear antenna having length of λ/4 and current distribution is assumed to be sinusoidal.
Fed at one end W. R. T. earth.
 Radiated fields of Infinitesimal Dipole
• An infinitesimal linear wire (l<<λ) is positioned symmetrically at the origin of the coordinate
system and oriented along the z axis, as shown in Figure.

• The spatial variation of the current is assumed to be constant and given by

R  Range
  Zenith angle
  Azimuth angle
• Since the source only carries an electric current Ie; Im and the potential function F
are zero.
• To find A we write

• where (x, y, z ) represent the observation point coordinates, (x', y', z' ) represent
the coordinates of the source, R is the distance from any point on the source to the
observation point, and path C is along the length of the source.
• Therefore

• The next step of the procedure is to find HA and then EA using J = 0.

• To do this, it is often much simpler to transform from rectangular to spherical
components in spherical coordinates to find H and E.
• The transformation between rectangular and spherical components is given, in
matrix form, by

• For this problem, Ax = Ay = 0, so

• We can find the magnetic field using the expression
1
H    A

• On simplification, we get

• On calculation, we get
• We can find the electric fields using the expression
1
E    H
j
• On calculation, we get

• The E- and H-field components are valid everywhere, except on the

source itself,
 Power Density and Radiation Resistance
• The Poynting vector is formed in terms of the E- and H-fields radiated by the antenna.
• By integrating the Poynting vector over a closed surface (usually a sphere of constant
radius), the total power radiated by the source is found.
• The real part of it is related to the input resistance.
• For the infinitesimal dipole, the complex Poynting vector can be written as

• whose radial Wr and transverse Wθ components are given, respectively, by

• And

• The complex power moving in the radial direction is obtained

by integrating over a closed sphere of radius r.
• Thus it can be written as

• Which reduces to
• It gives the real and imaginary power that is moving outwardly, which can also be
written as

• Where
• Then

• And

• For large values of r (1/kr<<1 or r>>λ), the reactive power

diminishes and vanishes when kr =∞.
 Radiation Resistance
• Since the antenna radiates its real power through the radiation resistance, for the infinitesimal
dipole it is found by equating Prad to

• where Rr is the radiation resistance.

• Then,

• for a free-space medium (η = 120π).

• For a wire antenna to be classified as an infinitesimal dipole, its overall length must be very
small (usually l ≤ λ/50).
• Terms that fall off as 1/r3 or 1/r2 are small at any
significant distance from an antenna

• Remaining “radiation” terms fall off only as 1/r and thus

transmit energy for long distances

• Also E and H fields are in phase for such terms

• When one is in the “near field” the 1/r3 or 1/r2 terms are
also important
• Near-Field (kr << 1) Region
• For kr << 1 or r << λ/2π, they
can be reduced in much simpler
form and can be approximated by
• The E-field components, Er and
Eθ , are in time-phase but they are
in time-phase quadrature with the
H-field component Hφ ; therefore
there is no time-average power
flow associated with them.
• Hence they are reffered to as
quasistationary fields.
Intermediate-Field (kr > 1) Region
• As the values of kr begin to increase and
become greater than unity, the terms that
were dominant for kr << 1 become smaller
and eventually vanish.
• For moderate values of kr the E-field
components lose their in-phase condition
and approach time-phase quadrature.
• The field expressions can be approximated
again, but in a different form.
• Thus we can write for kr > 1
• Far-Field (kr >> 1) Region
• In a region where kr >> 1, the fields can be simplified and approximated by

• The ratio of Eθ to Hφ is equal to

• where
• The E- and H-field components are perpendicular to each other,
transverse to the radial direction of propagation, and the r
variations are separable from those of θ and φ.

• The shape of the pattern is not a function of the radial distance

r, and the fields form a Transverse Electro Magnetic (TEM)
wave whose wave impedance is equal to the intrinsic
impedance of the medium.

• This relationship is applicable in the far-field region of all

antennas of finite dimensions.