Pppts Nov, 12 2020

KILIMANJARO SCHOOL OF PHARMACY
BASIC VETERINARY PHARMACOLOGY
MODULE CODE: PST06107
NTA LEVEL , DECEMBER. ,2020
BY KOLONJOI
KSP - BASIC VET. PHARMACOLOGY 1
Session 1: Introduction to Veterinary Pharmacology

• Learning Tasks
• By the end of this session students are expected to be
able to:
• Define terminologies used in veterinary pharmacology
• Describe principles and concepts applied in veterinary
pharmacology
• Explain the importance of veterinary pharmacology in
the management of common animal diseases

• Veterinary Pharmacology is the study of
substances that interact with living systems
through chemical processes, especially by binding
to regulatory molecules and activating or
inhibiting normal body processes in animals
• The principles and concepts of veterinary
pharmacology are similar to human pharmacology.
• They involve Pharmacokinetics and
Pharmacodynamics

• Pharmacokinetics is the study of drug absorption,
distribution, biotransformation (metabolism), and
excretion.
• Pharmacokinetic processes affect the route of
administration, doses, dose intervals, and toxicities
of drugs given to animals.
• Pharmacodynamics is the study of cell/tissue
responses and selective receptor effects.
• The significant difference is species variations that
need to be considered in veterinary pharmacology
• Pharmacodynamics: is the study of the biochemical
and physiological effects of drugs and their
mechanism of action. It is the response of the
organism to the action of a drug in the absence of a
disease. Pharmacodynamics is 'what the drug does to
the body'
• Pharmacokinetics: is the study of the actions of the
drugs in the body over a defined period of time. It
deals with the absorption, distribution,
biotransformation and excretion of the drug.
Pharmacokinetics is 'What the body does to the drug'
Importance of Veterinary Pharmacology
Veterinary science helps human health through
the monitoring and control of zoonotic disease
(infectious diseases transmitted from non-human
animals to humans), food safety, and indirectly
through human applications from basic medical
research. They also help to maintain food supply
through livestock health monitoring and
treatment, and mental health by keeping pets
healthy and long living.
The importance of animal medicines. The main aims of
veterinary medicine are:
• To prevent animal disease;
• To treat it when it occurs;
• To ensure animal welfare;
• To ensure healthy food;
• To preserve a healthy environment;
• To foster economical livestock rearing, for food and
recreation;
• To protect public health and control animal diseases
which threaten people by contact or food contamination.
In addition to the above importance basic vet also:
• Helps in the determination of correct indication
and dosage of veterinary medicines
• Helps to identify and respond to drug
interactions, contraindications and adverse drug
reactions related to veterinary medicines and
treat accordingly

• Evaluation
• What is veterinary pharmacology?
• What are principles and concepts of veterinary
pharmacology?
• What is importance of veterinary
pharmacology?

Session 2: Pharmacological Classification of Veterinary Medicines
• Learning Tasks
• By the end of this session students are expected
to be able to:
• Describe the pharmacological/therapeutic classes
of common essential veterinary medicines
• List sources of veterinary medicines

Classification cont……
• There are several pharmacological classes of
veterinary medicines.
• The classes include:
Anesthetics: class of medicines which include
ether anesthetics, halothane, ketamine,
isoflurane and thiopental which are used as
general anesthetics and others such as
lignocaine and bupivacaine are used locally

Classification cont……
• Muscle relaxants are medicines which include
gallamine, neostigmine, pancuronium,
suxamethonium, obidoxime and pralodoxime they
are usually used in surgery together with anaesthetics
• Analgesics: medicines which include aspirin,
paracetamol, diclofenac, ibuprofen, indomethazine,
piroxicam, mefenamic acid, naproxen and tramadol
they are used in management of pain and fever and
some of them manage inflammation too

• Anti allergies: class of medicines which include
chlorpheniramine, loratadine, cetirizine, adrenaline,
dopamine, metolazone, hydrocortisone, promethazine,
dexamethazone and calamine lotion. They are used in
management of allergic reactions
• Antidotes: class of medicines which include
ipecacuanha, activated charcoal, magnesium salt and
antivenom used in counteracting the effects of poisons
• Anti epileptics: class of medicines which include
carbamazepine, diazepam, Phenobarbital, phenytoin
and magnesium sulphate. They are used in
management of epilepsy
• Anti-neoplastics/immunosuppressants is a class of
medicines which include cyclophosphamide, rituximab
and prednisolone. They are used in immunosuppression
especially during organ transplant and management of
some cancers
• Antiparkinsonisms are class of medicines which include
benzhexol, biperidine, bromocriptine and carbidopa.
They are used in management of Parkinson’s disease
• Blood boosters are class of medicines which include
ferrous sulphate, folic acid and vitamin B 12. They are
used in management of anemia

• Anti coagulants: class of medicines which
include aspirin, activated prothrombin,
enoxaparin sodium, heparin, vitamin K,
protamin sulphate, traxenamic acid,
streptokinase, alteplase, frozen plasma, factor
viii and factor ix. They are used as blood
thinner and management of thrombosis
• Cardiovascular medicines: include drugs used
in management of heart disease and problems
associated with blood vessels. They include:
 Anti anginal drugs, which include glyceryl trinitrate,
isosorbide mono/dinitrate, nifedipine, clopidegral and
propranolol they are used in management of angina
 Anti arrythimic drugs, which include amiodarone,
verapamil, adenosine and lidocaine. They are used in
management of cardiac arrhythmias
 Anti-hypertensive Medicines, which include
methyldopa, captopril, nifedipine, atenolol,
propranolol, labetalol, bumetanide, peridopril,
carvediol, metoprolol, amlodipine, hydralazine and
bisoprolol. They are used in management of
hypertension
 Diurects which include frusemide,
bendrofluazide, spironolactone, mannitol and
glycerol syrup they are used in management of
hypertension and extracellular edema
 Lipid Lowering Medicines include simvastatin
and atovastatin which are used in lowering
cholesterol level in blood
 Cardiac Glycosides which include digoxin and is
used in management of congestive heart failure

• Dematological medicines is a class of used in management of
various skin conditions They include:
Anti-inflamatory (steroidal) and Anti-pruritic Medicines which are
betamethazone, hydrocortisone, dithranol, clobatesol propionate,
para amino benzoic acid and tretinoic acid
Fungicides (topical) which are clotrimazole, nystatin, miconazole,
tolnaftate, terbinafine and sodium thiosulphate solution
Keratoplastic and Keratolytic Agent which are silver nitrate sticks,
podophyin solution, trichloraacetic acid and sun screen protection
factor
Anti-infective Agent: which include oxytetracycline, retinoic acid,
isotretionin, chloramphenical, mupirocin, and gentamycin which
are used in various bacterial infections.

• Gastro-intestinal medicines are drugs which are
used in management of various gastrointestinal
conditions. They include:
 Antacids and Anti-ulcers Agents include
cimetidine, ranitidine, omeprazole, lansoprazole
esomeprazole and magnesium tricilicate which
are used in management of peptic and duodenal
ulcers
 Drugs affecting intestinal secretion and
antispasmodics, eg hyocine butyl bromide,
cholestyramine and ursodeoxycholic acid
 Anti-emetics which are promethazine,
metochlopramide and prochloroperazine. They
are used in management of nausea and
vomiting
 Cathartics: Eg, bisacodyl and lactulose. They
are used in management of constipation
 Anti-Haemorrhoids are various suppositories
example anusol
 Medicines used in Diarrhoea include, ORS,
loperamide and zinc tablets. They are used in
management of diarrhea
• Hormones and antidiabetic agents and related
medicines are used in management of diabetes
mellitus and other hormonal disorders. They include:
 Adrenal Hormones and Synthetic Substitutes include
dexamethazone hydrocortisone and prednisolone
 Oestrogens example ethinyloesradiol
 Insulin and Anti- diabetic Agents example
chlorpropamide, glibenclamide, gliclazide,
tolbutamide, metformin,glucagon glipizede and
insulin

 Ovulation inducers example clomiphene
 Oral Contraceptives example ethinyloestradion
+ norgestrel, ethinyloestradion+levonorgestrel
and ethinyloestradion ethinyloestradion
+desogestrel
 Progesterone example levonorgestrel,
medroxyprogesterone and
hydroxyprogesterone
 Thyroid, Parathyroid hormones and
Antagonists for example carbimazole, iodine
solution, levothyroxine and iodized oil capsule
• Sera and immunoglobulins are used in management of
immunological problems and preventions of some
diseases example gamma globulin, anti D globulin,
anti-rabies, activated prothrombin, factor vii, snake
venom polyvalent antiserum and tetanus
immunoglobulin
• Vaccines are a substance used to stimulate the
production of antibodies and provide immunity against
one or several diseases, prepared from the causative
agent of a disease, its products, or a synthetic
substitute, treated to act as an antigen without inducing
the disease.. Example of vaccines include
• BCG, DPT, measles, poliomyelitis and tetanus
toxoids, hepatitis BV, meningitis vaccine, rabies
vaccine, yellow fever Vaccine and
pneumococcal vaccine
• Take home assignment: Mention types of

animal vaccines you know

• Antibiotics include the following:
Aminoglycosides,
• Beta Lactam Antibiotics,
• Chloramphenicol,
• Diaminopyrimidines (Trimethoprim) ,
• Glycopeptides ,
• Fluroquinolones Polymixins,
• Lincosamides, Macrolides, Rifamycins,
Streptogramins ,Sulfonamides and
Tetracyclines
• Antiparasitics: are drugs that reduce parasite
burdens to a tolerable level by killing parasites
or inhibiting their growth. The ideal
antiparasitic has a wide therapeutic index, is
effective after one dose, is easy to administer,
is inexpensive, and does not leave residues (an
important consideration for use in food-
producing animals). And are classified as
follows:

• ANTINEMATODAL DRUGS (NEMATOCIDES)
may be broad-spectrum or narrowspectrum.
• A. Classification of antinematodal drugs
1. Benzimidazoles
2. Nicotinic agonists: levamisole, pyrantel, morantel
3. Macrocyclic lactones: ivermectin, doramectin,
eprinomectin, selamectin (avermectins), milbemycin,
moxidectin (milbemycins)
4. Miscellaneous nematocides: dichlorvos, piperazine,
emodepside, melarsomine

ANTICESTODAL DRUGS
These agents kill tapeworms and are called
taeniacides, as opposed to arecoline, an obsolete
taeniafuge that only paralyzes them.
Worms killed by these drugs may be digested by
the host animal; therefore, the killed worms may
not be evident in the feces

• ANTITREMATODAL DRUGS: General
aspect. Infestation with liver flukes (Fasciola
hepatica) is the most common and most
economically important trematode disease of
domestic animals worldwide. Brief
information is presented for drugs against lung
flukes (Paragonimus) in dogs and cats.

DEFINITIONS
Endoparasites: live within the body of the host
and cause internal parasite infections
• Ectoparasites: live on the body surface of the
host and cause external parasite infestations
• Nematodes: cylindrical, non-segmented
worms commonly called roundworm
• Platyhelminthes: flattened worms that are
subdivided into two groups Cestodes
(tapeworms) and Trematodes (flukes)

DEFN CONT…..
• Helminthes: divided into two major groups:
nematodes and platyhelmiths
• Cestodes: tapeworms
• trematodes: flukes
• Efficacy: extent to which a drug causes the
intended effects in a patient
• half-life: the amount of time (usually
expressed in hours) that it takes for the
quantity of a drug to be reduced by 50%

DEFN CONT….
• Toxicity: How adverse drug reactions manifest
themselves.
• Toxicology: Study of poisons/toxins.
• Teratogen: Drug agents that damage the fetus.
• Indications: reasons for using certain drugs
• Contraindications: reason to withhold or choose not
to use a certain drug
• Pharmacokinetics: the study of what happens to
drugs once they enter the body
• Pharmacodynamics: how drugs exert their effects on
the body
DEFN CONT……
• Adverse Drug Reaction: Undesirable
response to a drug that can range from mild to
life threatening. Photosensitivity- Causes skin
to be sensitive to light. Idiosyncratic Drug
Reaction.
• Potency: The amount needed to produce a
desired response. Dose-response curve.
• Therapeutic Index: The relationship between
a drug's ability to achieve the desired effect
and its tendency to produce toxic effects

• Pharmacometrics: is the study of the techniques used in the
measurement of drug effects to the administered dose of drug.
• Pharmacogenetics:: is the study of genetically determined
variations in animals that are revealed by the effect of drugs
• Pharmacogenomics: This term describes the use of genetic
information to guide the choice of drug therapy on an
individual basis.
• Pharmacoepidemiology : is the study of drug effects at the
population level. It is concerned with the variability of drug
effects between individuals in a population and between
populations.
• Pharmacoeconomics: aims to quantify in economic terms the
cost and benefit of drugs used therapeutically
• Veterinary medicine is the branch of medicine
that deals with the prevention, diagnosis and
treatment of disease, disorder and injury in non-
human animals. The scope of veterinary
medicine is wide, covering all animal species,
both domesticated and wild, with a wide range
of conditions which can affect different species.

• Livestock systems in developing countries are
characterised by rapid change, driven by factors such
as population growth, increases in the demand for
livestock products as incomes rise, and urbanisation.
Climate change is adding to the considerable
development challenges posed by these drivers of
change. The increasing frequency of heat stress,
drought and flooding events could translate into the
increased spread of existing vector-borne diseases
and macro-parasites, along with the emergence of
new diseases and transmission models (IFAD, 2002)
• Livestock diseases contribute to an important set of
problems within livestock production systems. These
include animal welfare, productivity losses, uncertain
food security, loss of income and negative impacts on
human health. Livestock disease management can
reduce disease through improved animal husbandry
practices. These include: controlled breeding,
controlling entry to farm lots, and quarantining sick
animals and through developing and improving
antibiotics, vaccines and diagnostic tools, evaluation
of ethno-therapeutic options, and vector control
techniques.
• Biotransformation: The body's ability to change a
drug into an inactive form so it can be
excreted/eliminated.
• Drug Distribution: Process by which a drug is carried
from the site of absorption to the site of action
• Trade name or Proprietary Name or Brand Name:
Name chosen by the manufacturing company that,
when registered, is the exclusive property of the
company.
• Generic or Non-proprietary Name: Common name
chosen by manufacturing company- which is not
exclusively owned-licensed by that company
• Chemical Name: Drug name based upon drugs
chemical make-up or molecular structure
• Titration: Increasing or decreasing a dose of a drug
until get desired effect.
• Compounding: Veterinarians may have to dilute or
combine existing medications because of the variety
of species and sizes of animals they treat.
• Bioavailability: The degree to which a drug is
absorbed and reaches the general circulation
• 4 drug administration routes: 1) oral 2) parenteral 3)
inhalation 4) topical
SOURCES OF VETERINARY
MEDICINES
• INTRODUCTION: Many drugs were
discovered long ago by trial and error. Some
were good and are still used today like the
opium from the poppy tree, digitalis from the
foxglove plant, etc. Discovery of medicinal
plants was largely by chance and when tribal
people looked for food they discovered various
roots, leaves, and barks. The people ate, and, by
trial and error, they learned about healing effects
of these plants.
• They also learned about toxic effects. Today, there
is a synthetic version of drugs to conserve their
sources, for resource effectiveness, better dosage
and control. We would learn about these sources
of drugs in this lesson.
• PLANT SOURCES OF DRUGS: Many drugs
available from plants are even today used in the
treatment of pathological conditions. With the
increasing tendency for the use of alternate
medicine, this source has gained more importance
in the recent past
PLANT SOURCES CONT…
The pharmacological activities of plants are
attributed to certain active principles in plants. Eg
alkaloids, glycosides, fats, oils, tannins, saponins,
Resins Gums etc.
MINERAL SOURCES: The drugs that are
included in this category include metals and their
salts, non-metals, metalloids, acids, alcohols and
coal tar drugs etc. Examples are sodium chloride,
copper sulphate, magnesium sulphate, potassium
permanganate, etc. They are used in the purified
form as drugs.
• ANIMALS SOURCES: The body fluids or glands
of animals are also natural drug sources. The drugs
obtained from animal sources include: Active
principles like: proteins, oil and fats, enzymes and
hormones e.g. gonadotropins, heparin, insulin,
thyroid extract, and enzymes (which are produced by
living cells and act as catalysts, such aspancreatin
and pepsin, vaccines, which include suspensions of
killed, modified, or attenuated microorganisms, or
antigenic materials obtained from these)

• MICROBIAL SOURCES: Microbes provide
an important source of drugs especially the
antibiotics. All the antibiotics used against a
variety of pathogens and also cancer are
obtained from fungi, bacteria or actinomycetes.
Some systemic drugs like ergot alkaloids
(fungal source) are also obtained, from
microbes. Eg: Penicillin from Penicillium
notatum, Streptomycin, Tetracyclines,
Chloramphenicol from Streptomyces

• SYNTHETIC SOURCES OF DRUGS: A
number of drugs synthesized in the laboratory
are used most commonly. Even natural products
such as hormones, antimicrobials etc. are also
synthesized in the laboratory. Other include:
older drug; chloroform, ether, nitrous oxide,
chloral hydrate Antipyretics, sulphonamides,
antihistamines, anticonvulsants, anti anxiety etc

PHARCOTHERAPY OF SOME
COMMON ANIMAL DISEASES
• Actinobacillosis and Actinomycosis in Cattle and
Goat:
• Actinobacillosis also known as wooden tongue is
a sporadic disease of cattle, Goat and sheep
commonly caused by the bacteria, A. lignieresii.
It is characterized by nodular abscession of soft
tissues

• The tongue shows hard tumorous abscess, and
similar lesions are found in the stomach and
other soft tissues of the head, neck, and limbs,
and occasionally in the lungs, pleura, udder, and
subcutaneous tissue
• Abscesses forming nodules may ulcerate and
discharge viscous, white faintly green exudates
that may contain small greyish white granules

• Pharmacological treatment of Actinobacillosis diseases
in Cattle and Goat
• First line
• Streptomycin or dihydrostreptomycin sulfate 5.5 mg/kg,
IM, q 24 h for 5 days ,
Alternative
• Sulfadimidine sodium 107 mg/kg, IV or PO q 24 h
• Surgical debridement and flushing with iodine.
• Administration of potassium iodide orally (6 to 10 g a day
for 10 days) or intravenous injection of sodium iodide at 10
% (8 g for 100kg) are effective to stop the acute signs of the
disease within two days.
• Contraindications of drugs used to treat
Actinobacillosis Disease , Streptomycin or
dihydrostreptomycin sulphate is contraindicated to
myasthenia gravis, Sulfadimidine sodium is
contraindicated in pregnant and lactating animals
Common side effects and adverse drug reactions of
drugs used to treat Actinobacillosis disease .The
following are the side effects;
• Streptomycin or dihydrostreptomycin sulfate;
– Nephrotoxicity, Ototoxicity, Neuromuscular blockage
– At higher dosage calves may develop diarrhea.
• Sulfadimidine sodium, Crystallization in urinary tract,
cutaneous eruption KSP - BASIC VET. PHARMACOLOGY 51
• Prevention and Control of Actinobacillosis
disease in Cattle and Goat
• No vaccines are available.
• Control of actinobacillosis is best achieved by
early recognition and prompt treatment of
cases;
• Isolation
• Disposal of animals with disease is
recommended.

Pharmacotherapy of Actinomycosis in Cattle
and Goat.
• Actinomycosis or lumpy jaw is a sub-acute or
chronic bacterial disease of cattle caused by
Actinomyces bovis.
• It is characterized by swelling of the mandible.
• The organism is introduced to underlying soft
tissue via penetrating wounds of the oral
mucosa from wire or course hay or sticks or
sharp grasses and spreads to adjacent bone.
• Clinical Symptoms
• Swelling with draining tracts resulting from a
chronic, progressive, indurated,
granulomatous, suppurative abscess that most
frequently involves the mandible, maxillae, or
other bony tissues in the head.
• Involvement of adjacent bone frequently
results in facial distortion, loose teeth (making
chewing difficult),
• Dyspnea from swelling into the nasal cavity.
• Actinomycosis in Cattle

Pharmacological treatment
First line: Procaine penicillin G, Dose: 22,000 IU/kg,
aqueous suspension, IM or SC, q 24 h for 3 to 5 days or
Benzathine penicillin q 48-72 h.
• Alternative. Oxytetracyclines , Dose:10 mg/kg for 3-5
days. For C/I, S/E, D/I, Erythromycin base 2-4 mg/kg,
IM q 24 h for 3-5 days.
Contraindications: animals with impaired liver function
• Side Effects: Allergic reaction in all species and
gastrointestinal disturbance; irritating, deep IM soreness.
• Withdrawal period: cattle slaughter not less than 14
days; milk 72 hours after IM administration
• Pharmacotherapy of Anthrax and Aspergillosis
in Animals
• Anthrax is an acute, febrile (42oC), septicemia,
fatal bacterial disease of food animals caused by
Bacillus anthracis. Anthrax outbreak occurs
irregularly and is commonly associated with
neutral or alkaline, calcareous soils where the
spores revert to the vegetative form and multiply
to infectious levels if environmental conditions
of soil, moisture, temperature, and nutrition are
optimal.
Signs and Symptoms of Anthrax Disease
The following are the signs and symptoms of Anthrax
• Acute illness is characterized by abrupt onset of; fever, signs of
abdominal pain, trembling, hematuria, and blood-tinged diarrhea.
• Pregnant animals may abort
• Milk production in lactating animals often decline or is tinged
with blood.
• Ventral subcutaneous edema may be present followed by death.
• Chronic infection is rare in cattle and is manifested by localized
edematous swelling on the ventral neck, thorax, and shoulders.
• Areas most frequently involved are the ventral neck, thorax, and
shoulders

• Pharmacological Treatment of Anthrax
• Antimicrobial therapy in animals: The recommended
procedure for treating animals showing clinical illness in
which anthrax is thought to be the likely or possible cause is
immediate intravenous administration of sodium
benzylpenicillin as directed by the manufacturer’s
instructions (usually in the range 12 000–22 000 units per
kg of body weight) followed 6–8 hours later by
intramuscular injection of long-acting benzathine penicillin
(manufacturers’ instructions usually recommend a dose
within the range of 6000–12 000 units per kg of body
weight) or other appropriate preparation such as ClamoxylR
(15 mg/kg), a long–acting preparation of amoxycillin
• Oxytetracycline 6-11 mg/kg, IM or IV, q 12-24 h. or
• Amoxicillin 5-10 mg/kg q 24 h for 3-5 days or
• Ciprofloxacin 2.8 mg/kg, IV or PO, q 8 h for 4 days. or
• Doxycycline, 20 mg/kg, IV
Note: among the tetracyclines, doxycycline is highly
lipophilic thus penetrates tissue with ease, is more
completely absorbed & slowly excreted. or
• Erythromycin 12.5 mg/kg (adult), IM, IV or SC; 15-30
mg/kg (calves), IM, IV, or SC. or
• Dihydrostreptomycin or streptomycin, 10 mg/kg, q 12h
IM, SC;
• Contraindications of drugs used to treat Anthrax
Disease
• Penicillins; In animals with hypersensitivity
reactions to penicillins
• Oxytetracyclines in animals with Renal impairment,
• Pregnant animals and up to 4 weeks of age in
neonates.
• Erythromycin base in animals with impaired liver
function
• Streptomycin or dihydrostreptomycin sulphate is
contraindicated to myasthenia gravis
• Common side effects and adverse drug reactions
of drugs used to treat Anthrax.The following are
the side effects;
• Oxytetracycline: Gastrointestinal symptoms are more
severe with oxytetracycline among the tetracyclines
• Discoloration of the teeth when used during
pregnancy
• Streptomycin or dihydrostreptomycin sulfate;
– Nephrotoxicity
– Ototoxicity
– Neuromuscular blockage

– At higher dosage calves may develop diarrhea.
• Ciprofloxacin 2.8 mg/kg, IV or PO, q 8 h for
4 days. Lameness and severe pain in some
immature animals due to damage to weight-
bearing joints when used at therapeutic doses
in some immature animals.
• Prevention and Control of Anthrax

• Cut off infection source
• Moving other animals away from the affected area is an
important early action.
• Vaccination. Animals should not be vaccinated within 2
months of anticipated slaughter
• Antibiotics should not be administered within 1 week of
vaccination.
• Animals that have died of anthrax should be burned in a
closed incinerator.
• Public health significance: Anthrax is highly pathogenic
to humans; thus care should be taken during handling of
suspected cases.
Zoonotic Diseases Commonly
Associated With Dogs and Cats

Toxocariasis: Toxocariasis is a zoonotic infection
caused by the parasitic roundworms commonly found in
the intestine of dogs (Toxocara canis) and cats (T. cati).
Transmission: The most common Toxocara parasite of
concern to humans is T. canis, which puppies usually
contract from the mother before birth or from her milk.
The larvae mature rapidly in the puppy’s intestines;
when the pup is 3 or 4 weeks old, they begin to produce
large numbers of eggs that contaminate the environment
through the animal’s stool. The eggs soon develop into
infective larvae.

You or your children can become infected after
accidentally ingesting (swallowing) infective
Toxocara eggs from larvae in soil or other
contaminated surfaces. Eggs are extremely resistant
and can remain viable for years.
There are two major forms of toxocariasis, Ocular
larva migrans, and Visceral larva migrans:
Ocular larva migrans (OLM): An eye disease that
can cause blindness. OLM occurs when a
microscopic worm enters the eye; it may cause
inflammation and formation of a scar on the retina
Visceral larva migrans (VLM): Heavier, or
repeated Toxocara infections, while rare, can
cause VLM, a disease that causes swelling of the
body’s organs or central nervous system.
Symptoms of VLM, which are caused by the
movement of the worms through the body,
include fever, coughing, asthma, or pneumonia.
In most cases, Toxocara infections are not
serious, and many people, especially adults
infected by a small number of larvae (immature
worms), may not notice any symptoms.
PREVENTION
The most severe cases are rare, but are more likely
to occur in young children, who often play in dirt,
or eat dirt (pica) contaminated by dog or cat stool.
• Have your veterinarian treat your dogs and cats,
especially young animals, regularly for worms.
• Wash your hands well with soap and water after
playing with your pets and after outdoor
activities, especially before you eat. Teach
children to always wash their hands after
playing with dogs and cats and after playing
outdoors.
• Do not allow children to play in areas that are
soiled with pet or other animal stool.
• Clean your pet’s living area at least once a
week. Feces should be either buried or bagged
and disposed of in the trash.
• Teach children that it is dangerous to eat dirt
or soil.
• TREATMENT:

A range of symptoms are connected with VLM:
• fatigue
• weight loss
• anorexia
• fever
• cough
• pneumonia
• bronchospasm
• abdominal pain
• headache
• rash
• seizures (rarely)
• The standard treatment for toxocariasis is a five-
day course of albendazole. This is sometimes
supplemented with corticosteroids to suppress
the allergic reaction to the roundworms. For
OLM, surgery, steroids, and anthelminthic (anti-
parasitic) chemotherapy are the preferred
methods of treatment.

• Sarcoptic Mange: Microscopic sarcoptic
mange mites cause sarcoptic mange, also
known as scabies. Sarcoptic mange mites affect
dogs of all ages, during any time of the year.
Sarcoptic mange mites are highly contagious to
other dogs and may be passed by close contact
with infested animals, bedding, or grooming
tools. People who come in contact with an
infected dog may acquire the mite

SYMPTOMS
• Sarcoptic mange mites burrow through the top
layer of the dog’s skin and cause intense
itching
•

• Clinical signs include: Generalized hair loss,
Skin rash, Crusting, Skin infections may
develop secondary to the intense irritation.
• People who come in close contact with an
infected dog may also develop a rash.

PREVENTION
• Look for fleas, ticks, and coat abnormalities
any time you groom your dog.
• See your vet if your pet excessively scratches,
chews, or licks its haircoat, or persistently
shakes its head. This may indicate presence of
external parasites or other conditions requiring
medical care.
• Prompt treatment of parasites lessens your pet’s
discomfort, decreases the chances of disease
transmission from parasite to pet, and may
reduce the degree of home infestation

• Discuss the health of all family pets with your
vet when one becomes infested. Some
parasites cycle among pets, making control of
infestation difficult unless other pets are
considered. Consult your veterinarian before
beginning treatment.
• Tell your vet if you have attempted any
parasite remedies, as this may impact your
vet’s recommendation

• Be especially careful when applying
insecticides to cats, as cats are particularly
sensitive to these products. Never use a product
that is not approved for cats , as the result could
be lethal.
• Follow label instructions carefully.
• Leave treatment to the experts. Your vet offers
technical expertise and can assist you in
identifying products that are most likely to
effectively and safely control your pet’s parasite
problem: TREATMENT
RABIES
• Rabies is a preventable viral disease of
mammals most often transmitted through the
bite of a rabid animal.
• The vast majority of rabies cases reported to
the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
(CDC) each year occur in wild animals like
raccoons, skunks, bats, and foxes.
• Domestic animals account for less than 10% of
the reported rabies cases, with cats, cattle, and
dogs most often reported rabid

What animals carry rabies?
• Any mammal can get rabies.
• The most common wild reservoirs of rabies
are raccoons, skunks, bats, foxes, ETC.
• Domestic mammals can also get rabies. Cats,
cattle, and dogs are the most frequently
reported rabid domestic animals in the United
States.
• pets and other domestic animals can be
infected when they are bitten by rabid wild
animals

• Rabies is an acute viral encephalomyelitis caused by
Rhabdoviridae that principally affects carnivores and
insectivorous bats, although it can affect any mammal.
• It is almost invariably fatal once clinical signs appear.
• Rabies occurs throughout the world.
• Transmission is almost always by introduction of virus-
laden saliva into the tissues, usually by the bite of a rabid
animal.
• Contact with fresh wound or even intact mucous membrane
may also transmit the disease. Virus may be present in the
saliva and transmitted by an infected animal several days
before onset of clinical signs (usually 3-5 days in domestic
dogs and cats).
Signs and Symptoms of Rabbies in Dog and Cat
• Clinical signs of rabies are rarely definitive.
• The most reliable signs are behavioral changes and
unexplained paralysis.
• Behavioral changes may include anorexia, signs of
apprehension or nervousness, irritability, and hyper
excitability
• The animal may seek isolation. ataxia, altered
phonation, and changes in temperament are apparent.
• A normally docile animal may suddenly become
cruel and the vice versa.
• Rabid dogs chew the wire and frame of their
cages, breaking their teeth, and will follow a
hand moved in front of the cage, attempting to
bite.
• Puppies usually become vicious in a few hours.
• Rabid domestic cats and bobcats attack
suddenly, biting and scratching viciously.
• As the disease progresses, muscular
incoordination and seizures are common.

EPIDERMIOLOGY
• Described 5th century B.C. and 4th century
B.C. by ancient Greeks
• Pasteur - found evidence of infections agent in
saliva, CNS, peripheral nerves.
• He attenuated the agent and used it to
protect against rabies.
• 1903. Adelchi Negri, an Italian physician found
negri bodies.

PATHOLOGY OF RABIES
• Bites/ Virus enters local tissue.
• Travels along sensory nerves to CNS
• Virus multiplies in CNS neurons
• Hippocampus and cerebellum
• viremia
• Infects other organs

Rabies clinical forms:
Furious and dumb (paralytic
Furious form – Animal is restless, nervous,
aggressive, and dangerous (fearless).
Inability to swallow water (hydrophobia),
excessive salivation, exaggerated response
to light and sound, hyperesthesia (animals
commonly bite or scratch themselves).
Dumb or paralytic form - As encephalitis
progresses, fury gives way to paralysis.
Convulsive seizures, depression, coma, and
respiratory arrest resulting in death 2 to 14
days after onset of clinical signs.
• NOTE: Higher proportion of dogs, cats, and
horses exhibit the furious form than ruminants
and lab animals.

Control and prevention
Developed countries
Stray dog and cat removal and control of
movement of pets
Immunization of dogs and cats
Routine laboratory diagnosis to obtain accurate
incidence data
Surveillance to assess the effectiveness of all
control measures
Vaccines
Public education to ensure cooperation
Inactivated and attenuated RV vaccines are efficacious
and safe in animals.
If you are bitten or scratched
 Tell an health care worker

immediately
 Wash the wound out with
soap and water
 Inform the doctor right
away

POSTEXPOSURE PROPHYLAXIS
Wound cleaning & treatment

prevention
• No effective treatment exists.
• Postexposure Prophylaxis/PEP: 3 steps

– 1. Wound care: immediate thorough washing with
soap and water and a virucidal agent such as povidine-
iodine or 1-2% benzalkonium chloride.
• Shown to be protective if performed within 3 hours

of exposure
• If puncture, swab deeply in wound and around edges

PREVENTION
• 2. Passive Immunization: Human rabies
immunoglobulin (HRIG) 20 IU/kg ASAP, but not longer
than 7 days after vaccine given. Infiltrate entire dose
around wound, any remaining IG inject IM at a site
distant from the vaccine.
• 3. Human diploid cell vaccine (HDCV): 1 ml (deltoid)

on days 0,3,7,14,28. do not give in gluteal. If injected
into fat, no antibodies formed.

PREVENTION
 (HRIG and HDCV: give in different anatomical sites

and never in the same syringe.

PREVENTION
Pre-exposure vaccination
Veterinarians
Lab workers working with RV
wildlife workers in endemic areas
Pre-exposure vaccination regime – 0, 7, 28 days

Negri bodies – A gold standard in
Diagnosis
Inclusion bodies called

Negri bodies are 100%
diagnostic for rabies
infection, but found
only in 20% of cases

Negri bodies
in Brain Tissue
• Negri bodies round or oval
inclusion bodies seen in the
cytoplasm and sometimes in
the processes of neurons of
rabid animals after death.
• Negri bodies are
Eosinophilic, sharply
outlined, pathognomonic
inclusion bodies (2-10 µm
in diameter) found in the
cytoplasm of certain nerve ..

This test is simple and quick in diagnosis of rabies and can
be performed easily and quick report can be given. The
intracytoplasmic inclusion bodies called “Negri bodies”
can be detected by using various stains of which Seller’s
stain is the simplest and widely used. Both impression
smears and sections of tissue can be stained. The presence
of these bodies depends on the time of death and the
course of the disease. The chances of detection of Negri
bodies increase if the animal is permitted to die its natural
death. Nearly 70% of the specimen from rabid animals
can be diagnosed by this test. Other encephalopathic
changes can also be studies from the stained preparations.

BOVINE TUBERCULOSIS
Bovine tuberculosis is a chronic bacterial disease
of cattle that occasionally affects other species of
mammals. This disease is a significant zoonosis
that can spread to humans, typically by the
inhalation of aerosols or the ingestion of
unpasteurized milk. In developed countries,
eradication programs have reduced or eliminated
tuberculosis in cattle, and human disease is now
rare; however, reservoirs in wildlife can make
complete eradication difficult.
Bovine tuberculosis is still common in less
developed countries, and severe economic losses
can occur from livestock deaths, chronic disease
and trade restrictions. In some situations, this
disease may also be a serious threat to
endangered species.
Etiology
Bovine tuberculosis results from infection by
Mycobacterium bovis, a Gram positive, acid-fast
bacterium in the Mycobacterium tuberculosis
complex of the family Mycobacteriaceae.
Species Affected
Cattle are the primary hosts for M. bovis, but
other domesticated and wild mammals can also
be infected.
Little is known about the susceptibility of birds
to M. bovis, although they are generally thought
to be resistant.
The name Tuberculosis comes from the nodules,
called‘tubercles’, which form in the lymph nodes
of affected animals.
TB is a disease listed in the World Organisation for
Animal Health (OIE) Terrestrial Animal
Health Code, and must be reported to the OIE as
detailed in the OIE Terrestrial Animal Health Code.
Geographic Distribution
Although bovine tuberculosis was once found
worldwide, control programs have eliminated or nearly
eliminated this disease from domesticated animals in
many countries. Nations currently classified as
tuberculosis-free include Australia, Iceland, Denmark,
Sweden, Norway, Finland, Austria, Switzerland,
Luxembourg, Latvia, Slovakia, Lithuania,
Estonia, the Czech Republic, Canada, Singapore,
Jamaica, Barbados and Israel. Eradication programs
are in progress in other European countries, Japan,
New Zealand, the United States, Mexico, and some
countries of Central and South America. Although
bovine tuberculosis has been eradicated from the
majority of U.S. states, a few infected herds continue
to be reported, and a few states may periodically lose
their disease-free status. In particular, a focus of
infection in wild white-tailed deer has complicated
eradication efforts in Michigan.
Bovine tuberculosis is still widespread in Africa, parts
of Asia and some Middle Eastern countries.
Transmission
• M. bovis can be transmitted by the inhalation of
aerosols, by ingestion, or through breaks in the skin.
The importance of these routes varies between
species. Bovine tuberculosis is usually maintained
in cattle populations, but a few other species can
become reservoir hosts. Most species are considered
to be spillover hosts. i.e a single event during which
a pathogen from 1 species moves into another
species; such movement can result in an outbreak
Cattle shed M. bovis in respiratory secretions,
feces and milk, and sometimes in the urine,
vaginal secretions or semen. Large numbers of
organisms may be shed in the late stages of
infection. Asymptomatic and anergic carriers
occur. In most cases, M. bovis is transmitted
between cattle in aerosols during close contact.
Some animals become infected when they ingest
the organism; this route may be particularly
important in calves that nurse from infected cows.

M. bovis can infect humans, primarily by the
ingestion of unpasteurized dairy products but also
in aerosols and through breaks in the skin. Raw or
undercooked meat can also be a source of the
organism. Person-to-person transmission is rare in
immunocompetent individuals, but M. bovis has
occasionally been transmitted within small
clusters of people, particularly alcoholics or HIV-
infected individuals. Rarely, humans have infected
cattle via aerosols or in urine.

M. bovis can survive for several months in the
environment, particularly in cold, dark and moist
conditions. At 12-24°C (54-75°F), the survival time
varies from 18 to 332 days, depending on the
exposure to sunlight. This organism is infrequently
isolated from soil or pastures grazed by infected
cattle. Although M. bovis can be cultured from
artificially stored samples for nearly two years
under some conditions, it appears to survive in
natural pastures for, at most, a few weeks.

Incubation Period
The symptoms of bovine tuberculosis usually take
months to develop in cattle. Infections can also
remain dormant for years and reactivate during
periods of stress or in old age. In kittens
experimentally infected by the parenteral route, the
incubation period is approximately three weeks; it
is probably longer under natural conditions.

What are the clinical signs?
TB usually has a prolonged course, and symptoms
take months or years to appear. The usual clinical
signs include:
– weakness,
– loss of appetite,
– weight-loss - progressive emaciation,
– fluctuating fever,
– intermittent hacking cough,
– diarrhea,
– large prominent lymph nodes.
Differential diagnosis
The differential diagnosis includes contagious
bovine pleuropneumonia, Pasteurella or
Corynebacterium pyogenes pneumonia, aspiration
pneumonia (which is often secondary to chronic
wasting disease in cervids), traumatic pericarditis,
caseous lymphadenitis or melioidosis in small
ruminants, and chronic aberrant liver fluke
infestation.

Laboratory tests
In live cattle, tuberculosis is usually diagnosed in
the field with the tuberculin skin test. In this test,
tuberculin is injected intradermally; a positive
test is indicated by a delayed hypersensitivity
reaction (swelling).
• What is being done to prevent or control
this disease? The standard control measure
applied to TB is test and slaughter.

Disease eradication programs consisting of post
mortem meat inspection, intensive surveillance
including on-farm visits, systematic individual
testing of cattle and removal of infected and
incontact animals as well as movement controls
have been very successful in reducing or
eliminating the disease.
Post mortem meat inspection of animals looks for
the tubercles in the lungs and lymph nodes (OIE
Terrestrial Animal Health Code)
Detecting these infected animals prevents unsafe
meat from entering the food chain and allows
veterinary services to trace-back to the herd of
origin of the infected animal which can then be
tested and eliminated if needed.
Pasteurization of milk of infected animals to a
temperature sufficient to kill the bacteria has
prevented the spread of disease in humans.

• Sanitation and disinfection may reduce the spread of
the agent within the herd. M. bovis is relatively
resistant to disinfectants and requires long contact
times for inactivation. Effective disinfectants include
5% phenol, iodine solutions with a high
concentration of available iodine, glutaraldehyde and
formaldehyde. In environments with low
concentrations of organic material, 1% sodium
hypochlorite with a long contact time is also
effective. M. bovis is also susceptible to moist heat of
121°C (250°F) for a minimum of 15 minutes. Rodent
control may also be advisable on affected farms.
• The occurrence of M. bovis in wildlife reservoir
hosts complicates eradication efforts. Culling to
reduce the population density can decrease
transmission
• Effective bovine tuberculosis vaccines are not
currently available for cattle. New vaccines are
being developed and tested, particularly for
wildlife reservoirs.

• Antimicrobial treatment has been attempted in some
species, but the treatment must be long term, and clinical
improvement can occur without bacteriological cure. The
risk of shedding organisms, hazards to humans, and
potential for drug resistance make treatment
controversial.
• The tuberculin test is the standard method of diagnosis in
live cattle and cervids, and the prescribed test for
international trade.. Occasionally, the sputum and other
body fluids may be collected from live animals for
microbiological examination. Blood samples may also be
taken for the gamma interferon or lymphocyte
proliferation tests, and serum can be collected for ELISA.
LEPTOSPIROSIS
INTRODUCTION: Leptospirosis is primarily a
contagious disease of animals, occasionally
communicable to humans, caused by a pathogenic
spirochete of the genus Leptospira and is
considered as the most widespread zoonotic
diseases in the world.
Leptospirosis is caused by Leptospira interrogans,
a corkscrew shaped bacterium (spirochete).
Leptospirosis causing bacteria are common
worldwide, especially in tropical countries with
heavy rainfall.
Intro cont…..
fever," "Pea Pickers Disease", "Canicola Fever",
"Weil's Disease", "Haemorrhagic Jaundice",
"Infectious Jaundice", "Swineherd's Disease",
"Swamp Fever", and "European Swamp Fever" are all
terms that were formerly used to describe
Leptospirosis.
GLOBAL SCENARIO
• Leptospirosis, an acute bacterial infection, that
affects humans and a wide range of animals occurs
more commonly in tropical countries, and man is
invariably infected from animal sources
Leptospira represents a group of highly
successful organisms that effortlessly parasite
kidneys of a variety of hosts for their survival,
maintenance and perpetuation. In this process,
they do not harm or cause significant biological
problems to the carrier hosts (rodents, wildlife),
but the accidental hosts like man and domestic
animals do suffer from unapparent mild febrile
conditions to fatal hepatic, renal and pulmonary
complications.

• TRANSMISSION
• The natural reservoirs for leptospires are wild
animals, which recover from the infection but
continue to excrete organisms in their urine.
Leptospires that are shed into the environment
come into contact with the mucous membranes
of a potential host or are ingested by small
animals, and then the disease develops.

Leptospires can survive outside the host for up to
six months in moist, warm conditions. Stagnant
water is an ideal source of infection. On the other
hand, high temperatures (greater than 36°C),
freezing, drying, or an acid or alkaline
environment rapidly kills the bacteria. For these
reasons, leptospirosis is seen most frequently in
areas of the world that have a temperate climate
and a high rainfall.

• CLINICAL MANIFESTATIONS
Leptospirosis is an acute febrile systematic disease
whose manifestations result from the effects of a
general vasculitis. The symptoms are expressed
depending upon the involvement of various
systems and organs of the body and may also vary
according to the serovars causing the infection.
There is involvement of central nervous system,
erythropoietic system, reproductive system, liver,
kidney, lungs and eyes.

• In cattle:
• Affected calves will run a temperature as high
as 41.5°C (107° F), are depressed and off feed,
and their mucous membranes are often pale and
show small hemorrhages. Jaundice is commonly
observed, and blood colored urine is passed.
The calves often develop anemia, which results
in an increase in respiratory and heart rates. The
death rate is frequently high, and any calves that
do survive may undergo a long convalescence.

In older cattle, infection may cause abortion. An
abortion storm can occur, particularly in groups of
susceptible cattle that are pregnant and exposed to
infection at the same time. Abortions are seen
frequently in the last three months of pregnancy. In
dairy cows, milk flow is considerably reduced, and
the udder becomes flaccid. The milk may have a
yellowish-orange appearance or even contain blood
clots

Leptospirosis in Cattle
• Adult cattle • Calves
– Abortions – Fever
– Decreased fertility – Refusal to eat
– Decreased – Reddened eyes
milk yield – Diarrhea
– Retained placenta – Jaundice
– Jaundice – Death

• In humans, the disease may range from mild to
severe. Symptoms include flu-like illness
(fever, body aches, headache), weakness,
vomiting, mental confusion, jaundice (yellow
skin color, yellow eyes) and a stiff neck.
Severe cases can lead to damage of the liver,
kidney or central nervous system (brain, spinal
cord). Notice the yellowing of the eyes in this
picture which is one sign of jaundice.

TREATMENT
• For severe leptospirosis, intravenous penicillin G
has long been the drug of choice, although the
third-generation cephalosporins cefotaxime and
ceftriaxone have become widely used. Early
treatment with antibiotics. Severe cases usually
treated with high doses of IV benzylpenicillin (30
mg/kg up to 1.2 g IV 6-hourly for 5-7 days).Less
severe cases treated orally with antibiotics such as
doxycycline (2 mg/kg up to 100 mg 12-hourly for
5-7 days), tetracycline, ampicillin or amoxicillin.

PREVENTION AND CONTROL
Prevention involves vaccination and avoidance of
areas known to be contaminated with leptospires.
Simple precautions can significantly reduce the
risk. Immunisation of cattle will reduce the
excretion of leptospires in their urine. The rat
population needs to be reduced, with destruction of
their habitats and rat proofing buildings. Those at
risk should cover all cuts with waterproof plasters
and wear protective clothing or other materials.

BRUCELOSIS
• Bacterium: Brucella abortus

• Third trimester abortions
– Up to 80%
– Inflammation of placenta
• Birth of dead/weak calves
• Retained placenta
• Low milk yield
• Temporary sterility
• Shed bacteria in milk for life

• Brucellosis, or undulant fever, is caused by
various species of Brucella bacteria.
Brucellosis causes abortions in the third
trimester of pregnancy when unvaccinated
cattle are exposed to the infectious organism.
It is stated that greater than 80% of cattle will
abort if exposed during this critical time of
pregnancy.

• The organisms enter through the mucous
membranes (gums, inside of eyelids, nose) and
can cause inflammation of the placenta. Abortion
can occur within 2 weeks and up to 5 months
following infection. The fetus may look normal if
aborted acutely after infection, or decayed if not
expelled for a period of time.
• The pregnancy may end with a stillbirth or a
weak calf. Often retained placentas and decreased
milk yield follow. The overall appearance of the
placenta is a leathery look.
• IN PEOPLE: Transmission of brucellosis can
occur by ingestion of infected food or
consuming infected unpasteurized milk or
dairy products (oral). It can also occur by
inhaling infectious aerosols, which is thought
to be means of infection in slaughterhouses, or
through direct contact with infected tissues
through a break in the skin or mucous
membranes (gums, eyes, inside of nose)

• Brucellosis can involve any organ or organ
system and have varying signs of illness. The one
common sign in all people with brucellosis is an
irregular fever for a variable length of time, thus
the term “undulant fever”. Other signs and
symptoms of brucellosis in people include
headache, weakness, joint pain, depression,
weight loss, fatigue and liver problems. Illness in
people can be very long and painful and can result
in an inability to work and loss of income.

• TREATMENT: The essential element in the
treatment of all forms of human brucellosis is the
administration of effective antibiotics for an
adequate length of time.
Treatment of uncomplicated cases in adults and
children eight years of age and older: doxycycline
100 mg twice a day for six weeks + streptomycin 1
g daily for two to three weeks. OR
• Doxycycline 100 mg twice a day for six weeks +
rifampicin 600–900 mg daily for six weeks.

• PREVENTION:
• The prevention of human brucellosis is based on
occupational hygiene and food hygiene.
 All dairy products should be prepared from
heat-treated milk.
 Consumption of raw milk or products made
from raw milk should be avoided.
 Meat should be adequately cooked.
 Special precautions should be taken by
laboratory workers.
 Physicians and health workers should be
aware of the possibility of brucellosis.
 Public health education should emphasize food
hygiene and occupational hygiene.

TAENIASIS AND CYSTICERCOSIS
Taeniasis and cysticercosis are diseases caused by
the adult and larval stages of the cestode or
tapeworm parasites Taenia saginata and Taenia
solium in their definitive host (humans- an organism
which supports the adult or sexually reproductive
form of a parasite) and intermediate hosts (cattle,
pigs, humans). Both species are meat borne parasites
that localise as adults in the intestines of the human
host. These intestinal infections, termed taeniasis,
normally produce only mild symptoms.
Eggs passed in the feces of human carriers can cause
further disease if ingested by cattle, pigs, or humans.
In these intermediate hosts, the egg develops to the
larval (cysticercus) stage, and the disease is termed
cysticercosis. The larval stage of T.saginata infects
cattle, whereas T.solium larvae can infect both pigs
and humans. Although larvae invade mainly skeletal
muscles.
T.soliurn larvae frequently invade the central nervous
system of humans, and is, consequently a serious
public health problem.
KEY FACTS
 Taeniasis is an intestinal infection caused by adult
tapeworms.
 Three tapeworm species cause taeniasis in humans, Taenia
solium, Taenia saginata and Taenia asiatica.
 Only T. solium causes major health problems.
 T. solium taeniasis is acquired by humans through the
ingestion of tapeworm larval cysts (cysticerci) in
undercooked and infected pork.
 Human tapeworm carriers excrete tapeworm eggs in their
faeces and contaminate the environment when they
defecate in open areas.
 Ingested T. solium eggs develop to larvae (called
cysticerci) in various organs of the human body.
 Humans can also become infected with T. solium
eggs by ingesting contaminated food or water or
because of poor hygiene via the fecal-oral route.
 When they enter the central nervous system they
can cause neurological symptoms
(neurocysticercosis), including epileptic seizures.
 T. solium is the cause of 30% of epilepsy cases in
many endemic areas where people and roaming
pigs live in close proximity.
TAENIA LIFE CYCLE

DEVELOPMENT IN DEFINITIVE HOST
• The adult stages of Tsaginata and Tsolium are
flat tapeworms consisting of a scolex (head), and
strobila (chain) ofproglottids (segments), Taenia
saginata can contain 1000 to 2000 proglottids
and can vary in length from 4 to 12 m: T. Solium
usually contains fewer than 1000 proglottids and
is usually less than 3m in length. Mature gravid
proglottids, containing a uterus filled with as
many as 80, 000 eggs, detach from the strobila
either singly or in multiples and pass out of the
intestine through the anus.
INTERMEDIATE HOST
Ingestion of the Tsaginata egg by cattle or the Tsoliurn egg
by pigs or humans results in the hatching of the larval stage
(onchosphere). Activated by host gastric juices, the
onchosphere penetrates the host’s intestinal mucosa and
enters the blood or lymphatic system. The primary site in
cattle for development of the T saginata onchosphere to the
infective cysticercus stage is the dilated lymphatic spaces in
skeletal muscles: some also reach full development in the
heart. In pigs and humans, the cysticerci of Tsoliurn develop
in skeletal muscle, brain, myocardium, and the eye. In
humans, localisation in the central nervous system is frequent

The life span of the cysticerci in cattle and pigs
is reported to be as short as a few months to as
long as 3 years.
CLINICAL SYMPTOMS
Taeniasis
Infections of adult T.saginata and T.solizim in
humans produce only mild symptoms. These
might include discharge of proglottid, abdominal
pain, nausea, loss of weight, change in appetite,
and headache.
TREATMENT, PREVENTION AND
CONTROL
To prevent, control and possibly eliminate T.
solium, proper public health interventions with an
approach spanning veterinary, human health and
environmental sectors are required. Eight
interventions for the control of T. solium can be
used in different combinations designed on the
basis of the context in the countries:

• treatment of taeniasis cases;
• intervention in pigs (vaccination plus
anthelmintic treatment) together with strategic
mass drug administration for taeniasis;
• health education, including hygiene and food
safety;
• improved sanitation;
• improved pig husbandry; and
• improved meat inspection and processing of
meat products.
TREATMENT
TreatmentTaeniasis can be treated with
prazinquantel, epsiprantel, mebendazole, febantel
and fenbendazole. Valuable animals with
cysticerci may be treated with surgery. There is
little information on anthelmintic treatment of
cysticercosis in animals. One dog with T. solium
neurocysticercosis was successfully treated with
albendazole and prednisone. As in humans,
anthelmintics usedalone may cause the death of the
larvae and exacerbate the clinical signs.
ANTHRAX
Introduction
Anthrax also called Malignant pustule, Malignant
oedema, Woolsorter's disease, or Ragpicker's
disease, is an acute infectious disease of animals
caused by Bacillus anthracis, a gram-positive, spore-
forming bacillus. Spores of B.anthracis can persist in
the environment for many years in some types of soil
and enter the body through skin abrasions, inhalation
or ingestion and multiply to produce exotoxins.
Anthrax is primarily a disease of herbivorous
animals that occasionally affects human.
Transmission
Animals usually become infected by ingestion of
contaminated soil or feeds. Infected animals shed
the bacilli during terminal hemorrhage, or if the
blood of the dead animal is spilled accidentally. On
exposure to the air, the vegetative forms sporulate.
These spores are markedly resistant to many
disinfectants and adverse environmental conditions
and remain viable in the contaminated soil for
many years.

Dried or otherwise processed skins of infected
animals may also harbor the spores for years. Thus,
the spore forms are predominant in the environment
and it is very largely through the uptake of spores
that anthrax is contracted.
TYPES OF ANTHRAX:
Cutaneous anthrax: is the most common anthrax
infection. Transmission occurs after exposure to
infected animals and contaminated animal products
such as hair, hides, wool, bones, or skin.

Inhalation anthrax: results from inhalation of spores
in particles less than 5 µm in diameter that may reach
the terminal alveoli of the lungs. Aerosols of such
particles may be created by the agitation of the hair or
wool in the industry settings.
Intestinal and oropharyngeal anthrax: results from
ingestion of contaminated meat. There is no evidence
that milk from infected animal transmits anthrax. The
disease spreads among omnivores and carnivores
through contaminated meat, bone meal and other feeds
and among wild life from feeding on anthrax
carcasses.
Accidental infection may occur among laboratory
workers. Direct person to person spread of anthrax
is extremely rare. However, precautions should be
taken with drainage and secretions of patients to
prevent cutaneous anthrax.
Incubation period is from a few hours to seven days.
Incubation period up to 60 days is possible. Most
cases occur within 48 hours of exposure.

Important clinical manifestations in animals
• In ruminants, sudden death, bleeding from orifices,
subcutaneous haemorrhage, without prior symptoms or
following a brief period of fever and disorientation
should lead to suspicion of anthrax
• In equines and some wild herbivores, some transient
symptoms such as fever, restlessness, dyspnoea or
agitation may be apparent
• In pigs, carnivores and primates, local oedema and
swelling of face and neck or of lymph nodes,
particularly mandibular and pharyngeal and/or
mesenteric may be present.
• Chemotherapy: Antibiotics are effective if the
disease is recognized early and the full recommended
dose and course of the antibiotic is completed. If left
untreated or if the antibiotic treatment is discontinued
early, the disease can be fatal. General measures for
treatment of shock are also necessary. Penicillin is
the drug of choice. In severely affected patients or
when pulmonary or gastrointestinal anthrax is
suspected, Penicillin G, 2 million units per day by
infusion or by slow intravenous injection should be
administered until the temperature returns to normal.

Oral antibiotics such as penicillin V (500 mg 6
hourly) or procaine penicillin (1 million units 12-24
hourly by intramuscular route) can be prescribed for
mild forms of cutaneous anthrax.
Prevention and control: Control measures aim at
breaking the cycle of infection. It is primarily
around proper disposal of anthrax carcasses,
disinfection, decontamination and disposal of
contaminated materials, and vaccination of exposed
susceptible animals and humans in at risk
occupations
PREVENTION CONT….
Therefore Anthrax can be controlled and prevented as
follows:
• Surveillance: All unexplained livestock deaths or
suspected cases must be investigated with laboratory
support
• Reporting: Mandatory reporting of sudden deaths among
livestock and Mandatory reporting of all human cases
• Vaccination: All high risk persons (veterinary workers,
laboratory workers, workers handling potentially
contaminated industrial raw materials) should be
immunized.

• Disposal: After confirmation as being a case of
anthrax, a carcass should not be opened and
should be disposed of by incineration. Deep
burial after disinfection is a less favoured option.
Necropsy should not be done, as this has the risk
of spread of the infection.
• Disinfection: Disinfectants should be available in
reasonable quantities at veterinary hospitals.
Veterinary assistants, surgeons and livestock
owners should be trained in their use.
Decontaminate soil seeded by carcasses.
• Education: Educate employees handling
potentially contaminated articles about modes of
anthrax transmission, care of skin abrasions and
personal cleanliness.
• Treatment: All symptomatic animals should be
treated. Immunize after cessation of treatment.
• Inter-sectoral cooperation: Good communication
and cooperation including sharing laboratory
facilities and knowledge between veterinary,
medical and wild life services are essential to
control of anthrax.
Actions to be taken in the event of an outbreak of
anthrax:
In the affected area, the following measures must be applied:
• The site where the animal died is to be disinfected with 5%
formaldehyde after disposal of the carcass.
• All other animals in the affected herd are to be vaccinated.
• Affected premises are to be quarantined for at least 20 days
after the last case or 6 weeks after vaccination, whichever is
later.
• Any milk collected from a cow, buffalo or goat showing
signs of anthrax within 8 hours of milking is to be
destroyed, along with any other milk that may have been
mixed with the suspected milk.
• People entering infected premises are required
to wear protective clothing and footwear, which
are disinfected before leaving the premises.
• All cattle on neighboring premises should also
be vaccinated.
• Persons who have handled infected animals or
their carcasses should be vaccinated against
anthrax, if their exposure is frequent and if the
human vaccine is available.

• The carcasses of infected cattle are to be either
burnt at the site of death and the ashes buried
deeply, or wrapped in double thickness plastic
bag to prevent spilling of body fluids and
removed to a more suitable site where they are
burnt and the ashes buried.
• Such persons should avoid any contact with other
persons or animals without first changing
clothing, washing hands and taking appropriate
disinfection measures.

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KILIMANJARO SCHOOL OF PHARMACY

BASIC VETERINARY PHARMACOLOGY

MODULE CODE: PST06107

NTA LEVEL , DECEMBER. ,2020

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• Take home assignment: Mention types of

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• Prevention and Control of Anthrax

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 Tell an health care worker

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• No effective treatment exists.

• Postexposure Prophylaxis/PEP: 3 steps

• Shown to be protective if performed within 3 hours

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