ANIMAL NUTRITION

Dr. Domingo B. Roxas

 Feed Nutrients and their Utilization

The Feed Nutrients and their Functions

in Animal Body

Nutrients - substances that, when

taken into the digestive system, are
digested, absorbed and utilized to
sustain animal body processes.
 Feed Nutrients and their Utilization

Functions:

 1)to provide energy for various processes

in the body;

 2) to serve as structural component;

 3)
to supply raw materials for synthesis of
body substances;

 4) to regulate body temperature.

Nutrient analysis - proximate analysis

 dry matter

 moisture

 Fat

 Protein

 ash

 fiber

 nitrogen-free extract (NFE))

 Feed

Moisture Dry Matter

Crude Ash Organic Matter

Crude Protein Crude Fat Crude Fiber Nitrogen-free

Extract
(Obtained by difference)
Figure 2-1. Partitioning of feed nutrients using the proximate analysis system.
Water

 ranges from
less than 10% in very dry
feeds such as the mineral
sources, to

75% or more in fresh plants.

Water

 functions as a universal solvent.

– biochemical reactions
– body temperature regulation
– maintains body form, and structural
constituent of the body, such as the
synovial fluid, etc.
Carbohydrates
starches, sugars, and fibers. About 75% of the total plant dry matter are
carbohydrates.

Classified based on the number of simple sugar molecules in their

structures, as follows:

a. monosaccharides –
pentoses – ribose, ribulose, xylose, xylulose,
arabinose
hexoses – glucose, fructose, galactose, mannose

b. disaccharides – two simple sugars

sucrose – glucose and fructose
lactose – glucose and galactose
maltose – glucose and glucose, joined in α1,4
glycosidic link
cellobiose – glucose and glucose, joined in β1,4
glycosidic link
Carbohydrates

c. oligosaccharides – less than ten simple sugars

d. polysaccharides – many sugar molecules
starch – repeating units are maltose

amylose – straight-chained (unbranched)

amylopectin - branched
glycogen – animal starch
cellulose – repeating units are cellobiose; fiber

e. mixed polysaccharides – hemicellulose, pectins

f. compound or conjugated polysaccharides
glycolipids – carbohydrate and fat
glycoprotein – carbohydrate and protein
Carbohydrates

 principal functions

- to provide energy to the animal for various cellular

metabolic activities.

– components of genetic materials DNA

(deoxyribonucleic acid) and RNA (ribonucleic acid).

Glycogen is a temporarily stored carbohydrate in

animal tissues.
 Fats or lipids

 insoluble in water, but soluble in organic

solvents like petroleum ether, hexane, etc.
 high energy materials, supplying 2.25 more
energy than carbohydrates and proteins.
 consist of fatty acids and glycerol. The nature
of fats is determined by the fatty acid
composition.
 Fats or lipids
The common fatty acids are:

 Volatile fatty acids – formate, acetate,

propionate, butyrate,
 Higher molecular weight saturated fatty
acids (with number of carbons on parenthesis):
 caproic (6), capryllic (8), capric (10), lauric (12),
myristic (14), palmitic (16), stearic (18)
 Unsaturated fatty acids:
 oleic (16 carbons, 1double bond), linoleic
(16,2), linolenic (18,3), arachidonic (20,4)
Fats
generally used to provide energy, and
are stored in body fats like adipose,
subcutaneous and mesentery.

provide cushioning effect on various

organs of the body
carriers of fat-soluble vitamin group.
Proteins
 composed of C, H, and O, with nitrogen (N) as
a regular additional element.

 composed of amino acids joined together in a

peptide linkage.

 About 150 amino acids occur in nature, but only

20 of them are regarded as nutritionally
significant, as they are involved in body protein
formation.
Proteins

 Ten essential amino acids- arginine, histidine,

isoleucine, leucine, lysine, methionine,
phenylalanine, threonine, tryptophan and
valine.

 non-essential amino acids - alanine, aspartic

acid, cystein, cystine, glutamic acid, proline,
hydroxyproline, serine, thyroxine, tyrosine,
hydroxylysine, asparagine and glutamine.
Protein functions
 principally
to provide the amino acids
needed for synthesis of body cells and
tissues, as well as other important
substances such as hormones, enzymes,
etc.

 may also be used as energy source,

although such is not a desirable function.
It happens when protein intake is
excessive, the body lacks energy, or there
is amino acid imbalance.
Vitamins
organic substances needed in much smaller amounts,
compared to carbohydrates, fats and proteins.

classified either as fat soluble, or water soluble.

fat soluble vitamins are:

 Vitamin A - retinol, retinal, retinoic acid

 Vitamin D- cholecalciferol

 Vitamin E – tocopherols

 Vitamin K - phylloquinone, menaquinone

Vitamins
The water soluble vitamins are:
 Vitamin B1 – thiamine
 Vitamin B2 – riboflavin
 Vitamin B6 – pyridoxine, pyridoxal,
pyridoxamine
 Niacin – nicotinamide, nicotinic acid,
niacinamide
 Pantothenic acid
 Vitamin B12 – cobalamine
 Biotin
 Folic acid – folacin, pteroylmonoglutamic acid
 Choline
 Inositol
 Paraaminobenzoic acid (PABA)
 Vitamin C – ascorbic acid
Vitamins

 vitamins function mainly as catalysts, coenzymes or

cofactors of various metabolic reactions. A few
vitamins may have structural functions

 Natural feed ingredients normally contain significant

amounts of vitamins or their precursors;

 feed processing, storage, etc. may considerably

reduce their amounts.
Vitamins
 Some animals, like the ruminants, are able to
synthesize some vitamins. These factors are taken
into consideration when formulating feeds for these
animals.

 The most common practice to ensure adequate

amounts of vitamins in the diet is through the use of
vitamin premixes.
Retinol (vitamin A)

is important in transmitting light stimuli from the retina

to the brain.

deficiency - night blindness, or reduced ability to see

in dim light.

xerophthalmia and conjunctivitis.

Effects on reproduction, such as incidences of

retained placenta, birth of blind and uncoordinated
neonates
Cholecalciferol (vitamin D3) and ergocalciferol (vitamin
D2)

the anti-rachitic vitamins.

functions are closely associated with those of calcium

and phosphorus. Proper absorption of Ca and P is
mediated by these vitamins.

deficiency symptoms - rickets (in young animals),

osteomalacia (old animals), and hypoparathyroidism
Tocopherol (vitamin E)

- anti-sterility vitamin.

a natural anti-oxidant, metabolic regulator of the cell

nucleus.

related to selenium, especially in preventing muscular

dystrophy.

deficiency - leads to reproductive problems.

Phylloquinone (vitamin K)

- anti-hemorrhagic vitamin.

required in blood clotting through prothrombin

formation.

deficiency - prolonged blood clotting, and in severe

cases, hemorrhage.
Thiamine (vitamin B1)
anti-neuritic vitamin.
functions as a coenzyme in energy metabolism.

Deficiency -weakness and low appetite, resulting to

poor growth; development of beri-beri.

Riboflavin (vitamin B2)

functions in several enzyme systems related to protein
and energy metabolism.

deficiency dermatitis and slow growth characterize

Niacin (nicotinamide, niacinamide)
- enzyme systems related to carbohydrate,
protein and fat metabolism.
deficiency - Dermatitis and retarded growth
pellagra (black tongue disease)

Pyridoxine (vitamin B6)

- coenzyme in amino acid and fatty acid
metabolism.
Deficiency - poor growth, anemia and
convulsion.
Pantothenic acid

- component of coenzyme A needed in various

activation reactions in the metabolism of
nutrients.

deficiency - “goose-stepping” gait in pigs

Biotin
- involved in carboxylation reactions and fatty
acid synthesis.
deficiency - dermatitis and weight loss.

Folic acid (folacin, pteroylmonoglutamic acid)

- involved in DNA synthesis, particularly in the
biosynthesis of purines. It is also involved in
the transfer of single carbon units in various
biochemical reactions.
deficiency - anemia and growth retardation. In
poultry, poor egg production and hatchability
Choline
-transmethylation reactions and in fat metabolism
in the liver.

Deficiency - slow growth and fatty infiltration of

the liver.
perosis (slipped tendon) in chicks
Cobalamin (vitamin B12, cyanocobalamin)
coenzyme in various biochemical reactions,
such as priopionic acid metabolism, and in red
blood cell maturation.
Deficiency - pernicious anemia.

Inositol
- widely distributed in feeds. Its function,
however, is still not well understood.
No characteristic deficiency symptom is
attributed yet to inositol.
Paraaminobenzoic acid

- essential for growth of some microorganisms

responsible for synthesis of other vitamins in the
rumen.
No deficiency symptom has been demonstrated.

Ascorbic acid (vitamin C)

- an anti-stress vitamin.
important in formation and maintenance of
collagenous intercellular material. involved in
hematopoesis,
deficiency - scurvy. In animals, no known deficiency
symptom is described.
Minerals

- inorganic substances needed in much

smaller amounts

structural components of the body,

especially the skeletons.

classified either as macrominerals, or

micro (trace) minerals, depending on the
amounts at which they are present in the
body.
Minerals
Macrominerals - calcium, phosphorus,
magnesium, sodium, chlorine, potassium, and
sulfur.
expressed as percent, or grams per kilogram.

Microminerals are iron, iodine, chromium, cobalt,

copper, selenium, manganese, fluorine, and
zinc.
usually expressed in mg/kg, or g/kg.
Calcium (Ca) -the most abundant element in the
body; about 99% in the skeleton and teeth.
functions - maintenance of acid-base balance,
muscular contraction, blood coagulation, nerve
impulse action and milk secretion
deficiency symptom - is similar to that of vitamin
A and phosphorus, because of their metabolic
relationships: rickets in young animals, soften-
ing and deformation of bones, osteomalacia in
old animals, with increased porosity and
brittleness of bones. In laying hens, the
calcium level in the feed is increased >3X due
to calcium deposition in the eggshell.
Phosphorus (P) - important in bone formation, more
than 80% of phosphorus found in the bones and
teeth.
involved in various metabolic processes as
component of high energy compound ATP, and in
many enzyme systems.
maintaining acid-base balance, and in milk
secretion.

Deficiency - “pica”, or depraved appetite The proper

calcium-phosphorus ratio has to be maintained in
the diet.

appropriate Ca:P ratio ranges between 1:1 and 2:1.

Magnesium (Mg) - found in the skeleton, and in soft
tissues and body fluids.
activator of various enzymes involved in metabolic
transformations.
Deficiency - hypomagnesemic tetany (grass
staggers in ruminants).

Potassium (K) - important in the osmotic regulation

of body fluids and in maintaining proper acid-base
balance in the animal.
involved in nerve and muscle excitability.
Deficiency - poor growth, weakness and tetany
Sodium (Na), along with chlorine (Cl) is important in
maintaining acid-base balance and osmotic
pressure of body fluids.
involved in nerve impulses and in absorption of
sugars and amino acids in the intestines.

Chlorine - hydrochloric acid formation in the

stomach.
deficiency - increased alkali formation and
circulation in the blood (alkalosis)
Sulfur (S) - synthesis on sulfur amino acids cysteine
and cystine as well as vitamins thiamin and biotin,
hormone insulin and metabolite coenzyme A.

Iron (Fe) - present in the body in combination with

proteins such as hemoglobin and transferrin.
component of enzymes involved in the
cytochrome systems.
deficiency - anemia.
Iodine (I) - synthesis of hormones triiodothyronine
and thyroxine
deficiency - characterized by enlargement of
thyroid gland.
birth of weak or dead offsprings.

Copper (Cu) - component of enzyme cytochrome

oxidase, which is involved in oxidative
phosphorylation
deficiency - poor growth, depigmentation of hair
and wool, anemia as a result of iron absorption
problem, among others.
Manganese (Mn) - activator of various enzymes
involved in metabolism.
deficiency - perosis, or “slipped tendon” disease

Cobalt (Co) - associated with vitamin B12, or

cobalamin, being a component of that substance.
deficiency - emaciation, anemia, and unthriftiness.
Zinc (Zn) - component of several digestive and
metabolic enzymes, such as carboxypeptidases,
lactate dehydrogenase, alkaline phosphatase and
thymidine kinase.
deficiency symptom - parakeratosis, characterized
by reddening of the skin, followed by development
of scabs.

Selenium (Se) - component of the enzyme

glutathione peroxidase, which catalyzes the
removal of hydrogen peroxide.
deficiency symptoms - myopathy in mammals and
exudative diathesis in poultry can be prevented by
supplementing feeds with either selenium or
vitamin E.
Molybdenum (Mo) - component of enzyme xanthine
oxidase, aldehyde oxidase and sulfite oxidase.
no known deficiency symptom has been described
as attributed to lack of molybdenum in the diet.
 Digestion, Absorption and
Metabolism
Classification of Domestic Animals with
reference to their Digestive Systems

 nonruminants,
monogastrics, or simple-
stomached animals.

 herbivorous monogastrics

 ruminants
 Esophagus Large intestine

Duodenum
Jejunum

Stomach Anus

Rectum
Ileum
A. Pig Cecum

Duodenum
Esophagus Large intestine

Proventriculus Cloaca

Ileum
Jejunum
B. Chicken Crop
Gizzard Ceca (paired)

Esophagus Duodenum
Jejunum

Stomach Large intestine

Anus

Ileum
Rectum

C. Horse Cecum (functional)

Esophagus Rumen Duodenum Rectum

Jejunum
Anus
Reticulum

Large intestine
Omasum
Ileum Cecum

D. Cattle Abomasum

Figure 2-3. The digestive tract of various domestic animal species. Accessory digestive organs
 ATP
PENTOSE PHOSPHATE TRIGLYCERIDES
GLUCOSE
PATHWAY
GLYCOGEN

NADPH

GLUCOSE-6-PO4

Glycerol
PROTEIN FATTY ACID
SYNTHESIS SYNTHESIS
GLYCOLYSIS
FATTY ACID
ATP
ATP

ATP FATTY ACYL CoA

GLUCOGENIC
AMINO ACIDS PYRUVATE
CYTOSOL

UREA
NH2 FATTY ACYL CoA
CYCLE
PYRUVATE
MITOCHONDRIA
KETOGENIC
AMINO ACIDS ACETYL CoA
CO2 ACETYLCoA

ß-OXIDATION
KREBS CYCLE
(TRICARBOXYLIC ACID CYCLE)

NADH

FADH2
NADH

FADH2
O2

ELECTRON TRANSPORT SYSTEM Note:

---- denotes nutrient synthesis
H2O ___ denotes nutrient breakdown

ATP

Figure 2-4. Major metabolic pathways involved in cellular metabolism of nutrients, and their
Figure . Major metabolic pathways involved in cellular metabolism of nutrients
interrelationships.
 Partitioning Energy
Gross Digestible Metabolizable Net energy
Energy energy energy

NE Maintenance
Fecal Urine Heat of
energy energy fermentation
NE Production
Meat
Heat Milk
increment Egg
Work
 Feed evaluation
Chemical analysis
Proximate analysis
NIRS –Near infrared reflectance spectroscopy

Metabolism trial

Feeding trial

Development of nutrient requirements

of animals
Expressing feed nutrient values

 Values of feed nutrients are expressed in a

number of ways, depending on the consistency
of the feed.

 “fresh basis” - when it is presented as part of

the total feed weight, including moisture
content.

 “dry basis (or dry matter basis)” - when the

nutrient value is part of the dry matter
component only.
Expressing feed nutrient values

 “as fed basis” - consistency of a feed material

when it is offered to the animal.

 “air-dry basis” - when a feed has around 88%

dry matter, the consistency when most dry feeds
such as hay and concentrates are stored.

 These values are converted from one another on

a ratio and proportion system of computation.
 For example, a fresh grass has 25% dry matter (or
75% moisture) and 2.7% crude protein.

On dry basis, the protein content would be:

25 = 2.7 ; X = 2.7 (100) = 10.8%
100 X 25

and on an air-dry basis (at 88% DM):

25 = 2.7__ ; X = 2.7 (88) = 9.5%
88 X 25
Animal feeds and their characteristics

The various feed groups

 Concentrate feeds -high in digestible nutrients

and low in fiber (< 18%).

 roughages - low in digestible nutrients and

high in fiber.
Animal feeds and their characteristics
The concentrate feeds

Energy feeds. cereal grains, tubers or root

crops

Bulky feeds. have higher fiber content than

the energy feeds. Some bulky feeds could
supply high amounts of protein - brans and
pollards.
Animal feeds and their characteristics
The concentrate feeds

Plant protein feeds. Legume seeds and oil

extraction residues
leaf protein concentrates

Animal protein feeds. fish meals, meat meal,

meat and bone meal, and other rendering
products.
Animal feeds and their characteristics
The concentrate feeds

Liquid supplements. molasses, oils and fats.

Synthetic vitamins and amino acids.
Minerals.
Additives. growth promotants, antimolds,
antibiotics, antioxidants, probiotics, prebiotics
 Dent

Pericarp
Scutellum

Endosperm
Soft
Germ
Hard S hoot

Root

Figure 4-1. Parts of a typical cereal grain. The soluble carbohydrates are found in the endosperm, while the proteins are concentrated in the
germ. The bran is obtained from the pericarp.
Additives and growth promoting substances
Enzymes.
Cellulase,
Mannanase - copra meal, breaking up the
glycomannans.
Protease – proteins
Phytase liberates phytate phosphorus
Multienzyme preparations contain several
enzymes acting in unison to improve nutrient
digestion of feeds.

Acidifiers. propionic, lactic and formic acids.

Additives and growth promoting substances

Hormones and metabolic acting agents.

Thyroxine, thyroprotein (iodinated casein),
thiourea, and thiouracil.

Food enhancing substances. don’t improve

nutrient availability; used to produce feeds with
more desirable appearances. food coloring
agents and carotenoids.

Antioxidants. ethoxyquin, butylated

hydroxyanisole (BHA) and butylated
hydroxytoluene (BHT). Vitamin E is a natural anti-
oxidant
Appetite enhancers. to improve feed intake.
feed sweeteners and other flavoring agents.

Anti-molds and toxin binders. prevent the

proliferation of molds that cause toxins in
feeds. bind the toxins and minimize their
potential harmful effects on the animal.

Antibiotics. substance produced by an

organism, used to control the growth of
other organisms. bacitracin, erythromycin,
chlortetracycline, oxytetracycline, tylosin,
lincomycin, etc.
Chemotherapeutic agents. not antibiotics but
function in similar manner. They are of pure
chemical origin, unlike antibiotics that are
produced using live organisms. arsanilic acids,
nitrofurans, sulfamethazine

Probiotics. preparations containing beneficial

microorganisms. Lactobacillus casei,
Streptococcus faecium, Saccharomyces cervisea
and Bacillus spp.

Prebiotics. substances that promote the

establishment and growth of beneficial
microorganisms, while suppressing that of the
harmful microorganisms.
Herbal substances. terpenes, phenols, organic
acids, alcohols, aldehydes, ketones, flavonic
derivatives. Essential oils
 The roughages
Grasses and legumes for pasture and cut and carry.
 pastures
 cut-and-carry system (or zero grazing)

Processed grasses and legumes. surplus of forage in

the rainy season
 haymaking
 silage making. ferments forages in a suitable
container, called silos Fermentation involves packing
the forage tightly in a silo, evacuating the air (oxygen)
and promoting the growth of anaerobic
microorganisms responsible for producing
fermentation acids.
 The roughages
Tree fodders and shrubs.

Crop residues. rice straw and corn stover. (Straw is the

term applied to plant part with hollow stem, while
stover, that with solid stem.)
much lower in quality compared to fresh grasses and
legumes
Sugarcane tops
Agro-industrial by-products.

brewer’s spent grains, brewers’ yeast and

distillers’ grain by-products.
pineapple (Ananas comosus) pulp
banana (Musa sapientum) pulp and reject.
sugarcane bagasse
dried poultry litter (or dried poultry wastes)
Common grass, legume, shrub and tree species for
forage

Tropical grasses follow the C4 type of photosynthetic

pathway, with mechanism of adaptation to high
temperature and high light intensity.

The shrub and tree legumes are sometimes called

“multipurpose trees” (MPT) because aside from being
used for forage, they supply fruits, shade, mulch, fuel,
etc.
Common grass, legume, shrub and tree species for
forage

Napier grass (Pennisetum purpureum Schumach;

elephant grass)

Guinea grass (Panicum maximum Jacq.; green panic)

Para grass (Brachiaria mutica [Forsk.] Stapf)

Alabang X (Dicanthium aristatum, [Poir.] Hubbard;
angleton grass) Setaria (Setaria sphacelata
[Schumach] M.B. Moss)

Cogon grass (Imperata cylindrica)

Ipil-ipil (Leucaena leucocephala Benth)

Gliricidia (Gliricidia sepium)

Centrosema (Centrosema pubescens Benth.)

Calopogonium (Calopogonium mucunoides Desv.)

Tropical kudzu (Pueraria phaseoloides [Roxb.]

Benth.)

Siratro (Macroptilium atropurpureum [DC] Urb.)

Stylosanthes (Stylosanthes humilis HBK)