ENDOCRINOLOGY

(intoduction)
Yunita Rakhmawati, M.Kes
Coordination of Body Functions
Multiple activities of the cells, tissues, & organs are coordinated by chemical
massenger systems:
1. Neurotransmitters  released by axon terminals into synaptic junctions
2. Endocrine hormones  released by glands/spesialized cells into the circulating
blood
3. Neuroendocrine hormones  secreted by neurons into the circulating blood
4. Paracrines  secreted by cells into extracelullar fluid
5. Autocrines  secreted by cells into extracelullar fluid
6. Cytokines  secreted by cells into extracelullar fluid & can function as
paracrines, autocrines, endocrine hormones

This systems, interact each others to maintain body homeostatis

Endocrine hormones
• The endocrine hormones are carried by the circulatory system to cells
throughout the body, including the nervous system in some cases,
where they bind with receptors and initiate many cell reactions.
• Some endocrine hormones affect many different types of cells of the
body, for instance:
• Growth hormones: induce growth most parts of the body
• Thyroxine: increased the rate of many chemical reactions
Anatomical loci of
the principal
endocrine glands &
tissues
Chemical Structure & Synthesis Of
Hormones
General classess of hormones:

1. Proteins and polypeptides: hormones secreted by pituitary gland, the pancreas,

the parathyroid gland, etc

2. Steroid: secreted by the adrenal cortex, the ovaries, the testes, and the placenta

3. Derivatives of the amino acid tyrosine: secreted by the thyroid and the adrenal
medullae
Comparison of peptide, steroid, & amine hormones
Peptide Hormones
• Most of the hormones in the body are polypeptides and proteins
• Polypeptide and protein hormones are stored in secretory vesicles until
needed
• Peptide/protein hormones:
- Transport in the blood and half-life
- Bind surface membrane receptors
- Cellular response through signal transduction system
• The peptide hormones are water soluble, allowing them to enter the
circulatory system easily, where they are carried to their target tissues. 
Synthesis and secretion of peptides hormones
• Process:
preprohormones (large, inactive) 
prohormones (smaller inactive) 
hormones (active)
• Peptide/protein hormones:
- Transport in the blood and half-life
- Bind surface membrane receptors
- Cellular response through signal transduction system

• The peptide hormones are water soluble,

allowing them to enter the circulatory
system easily, where they are carried to
their target tissues. 
Synthesis

Packaging

Secretion
Steroid Hormones
• Steroid hormones are usually synthesized from cholesterol and are
not stored
• Steroid hormones have a chemical structure that is similar to
cholesterol, and in most cases are synthesized from cholesterol.
• Steroids are highly lipid soluble (lipophilic), once they are synthesized,
they can simply diffuse across the cell membrane and enter the
interstitial fluid and then the blood. 
• Bind carrier proteins in blood: longer half-life
Amine-derived Hormones (Amine)
• Derived from 1-2 AA
- Tryptophan  melatonin
- Tyrosine: catecholamines (epinephrine, dopamine) and thyroid homones

• Amine hormones:
- Melatonin
- Catecholamines
- Epinephrine
- Norepinephrine
- Dopamine

• Thyroid hormones
Mechanism of Action of Hormones
• The first step of a hormone’s action is to bind to specific receptors at the target cell (cells that lack receptors for
the hormones do not respond)
• Receptors for some hormones are located on the target cell membrane; other hormone receptors are located in
the cytoplasm or the nucleus.
• When the hormone combines with its receptor  initiates a cascade of reactions in the cell
• Each stage becoming more powerfully activated  even small concentrations of the hormone can have a large
effect.
• The locations for the different types of hormone receptors are generally the following:
1. In or on the surface of the cell membrane. The membrane receptors are specific mostly for the protein,
peptide, and catecholamine hormones.
2. In the cell cytoplasm. The primary receptors for the different steroid hormones are found mainly in the
cytoplasm.
3. In the cell nucleus. The receptors for the thyroid hormones are found in the nucleus and are believed to be
located in direct association with one or more of the chromosomes
Pathway
Pathway