What, why and how?

Topic 3A Bonding and structure

• Physical properties of ionic compounds: What is an ion?
• Soluble in water
• Conduct electricity when molten or dissolved in water
• Can be electrolyzed when molten or dissolved in water – see below. Charged
particles must be present to maintain a flow of charged particles
• High melting and boiling point

Topic 3a – Evidence of ions

 Topic 3a – Evidence of ions – Electron density maps

Electron density map to the left show ions

as distinct particles. The map below is of a
hydrogen molecule and shows overlap of
levels and sharing of electrons.

Electron density maps show the probability of an electron being there. Each line
represents such a probability; its value decreases s you move away from the nucleus.
Topic 3a – Evidence of ions
– Migration of ions
Topic 3A - Ionic bonding
Physical property
Low volatility – high melting and
boiling points
Soluble in polar solvents such as
water
Not soluble in non-polar solvents
Electrical conductivity when
dissolved in water or molten
Evidence of ions
Strong electrostatic attraction is only possible
between charged particles.
Polar molecules have a separation of charges and
these charges attract the ions and are able to
dislodge from the lattice.
Non-polar solvents are unable to overcome the
attraction between oppositely charged ions.
To be a conductor a substance must have particles
that are mobile and can carry a charge: ions are
charged particles. However, the ions need to be
mobile which is achieved by melting or dissolving
the ionic compound.
Topic 3A – Ionic bonding – formation
of ions
Positive ions are called cations

Negative ions are anions

Topic 3A – Ionic bonding
Topic 3A – Ionic bonding
Topic 3A – Ionic bonding
Topic 3A – Ionic bonding – Formation of ions

Ionic bonds are the result of strong net

electrostatic attraction between
oppositely charged ions.
Topic 3A - Ionic bonding: Dot-cross diagrams
Draw dot and cross diagrams (only for the ions and only show the outer
shell) for the ions in the following compounds as shown below for
sodium chloride: LiF, MgS, Al2O3, FeCl3. For the MgS can you also write
the sp notation on the electron configuration for each ion.
Topic 3A –
Ionic bonding
– Ionic lattice

Ionic crystals are lattices of millions of ions

Topic 3A - Ionic bonding and structure – Ionic
lattice
Topic 3A - Ionic bonding, structure - Properties
Topic 3A – Ionic bonds – Strength of ionic bonding

Identify any trends and explain.

 Topic 3A – Ionic bonds – Strength of ionic bonding

Factors that affect the strength of an ionic bond:

• Ionic charge: the greater the charge the greater the attraction
• Ionic radius: the smaller the radius the stronger the attraction as shown in table A above.
Topic 3A- Ionic bonding
Topic 3A- Ionic bonding
Topic 3A- Ionic bonding – Ionic radii trends
Topic 3A Ionic bonding – Ionic radii
trendsding – Ionic radii trends

Topic 3A- Ionic bonding – Ionic radii trends

What affects the size of atoms and ions?

Topic 3A Ionic bonding – Ionic radii trends
Cations are always smaller than the parent atom
from which they are made.

This is because:
 When all electrons in an outer main energy
level are removed, that energy level is lost.
 When an electron is removed the other
electrons in the same or different energy level
experience less repulsion between them and
the electrons contract towards the nucleus.

Ionic radius of cations increases as you go down

the group as the number of main energy levels
increases which offsets the increase in nuclear
charge.
Topic 3A Ionic bonding – Ionic radii trends
Anions are always larger than the atoms
they are derived from as the added
electrons increase the repulsion between
the valence electrons pushing them
further away from the nucleus. The
electrons are held less tightly.

The ionic radii increases as you go down

the group as the number of main energy
levels increases (more shielding effect)
which offsets the increase in nuclear
charge.
Topic 3A Ionic bonding – Ionic radii trends
• Isoelectronic atoms and ions that have the same electronic
configuration.

• Place the following ions in order of increasing ionic radius and explain
your ranking.

F- Na+ N3- Mg2+ Al3+ O2-

Topic 3A Ionic bonding – Ionic radii trends
Topic 3A - Ionic bonding – Ionic radii trends
Place the following ions in order of increasing atomic/ionic radius and
explain your ranking:

P3- Ca2+ Cl- K+ Ar S2-

Topic 3A – Ionic bonding – Polarisation

In an ionic lattice the positive ion will attract the

electrons of the anion (-). If the electrons are pulled
towards the cation, the anion is polarized since the even
distribution of its electron density has been distorted.
This process is called polarization.

This polarization results in a bond with greater covalent

character.
Topic 3A – Ionic bonding – Polarisation

1. What factors are changing

on the left of the green
arrow? Which factors are
not changing?

2. What effect do these have

on the polarisation of the
anion? Explain.

3. What factor is changing on

the right side of the green
arrow?

4. What effect does it have on

the polarisation of the anion?
Explain.
 Topic 3A – Ionic bonding – Polarisation (in ions)
The ability of a cation to distort an anion is known as its polarization power and the tendency of the anion to
become polarized by the cation is known as its polarizability.

The polarizing power and polarizability that enhances the formation of covalent bonds is favoured by the
following factors:

• Small cation: the high polarizing power stems from the greater concentration of positive charge on a small
area.

• Large anion: the high polarizability stems from the larger size where the outer electrons are more loosely
held and can be more easily distorted by the cation. This explains why for the common halides, iodides, are
the most covalent in nature (I- 206 pm).

• Large charges: as the charge on an ion increases, the electrostatic attractions of the cation for the outer
electrons of the anion increases, resulting in the degree of covalent bond formation increasing.
Topic 3A – Ionic bonding – Polarisation
Topic 3A - Ionic bonding, structure and
properties
Topic 3B - Covalent bonding
 Topic 3B – Covalent bonding – Evidence –
Electron density map
ron density maps show the probability of an electron being there. Each line
sents such a probability; its value decreases s you move away from the nucleus.
Topic 3B – Covalent bonding – Evidence of strength of covalent bonds.

High melting and boiling points of diamond, graphite,

silicon and silicon dioxide – see later.

Covalent bond is the strong electrostatic attraction

between 2 nuclei and the shared paired of electrons
between them.

Use dot-cross diagrams to show hydrogen and oxygen

atoms form a covalent bond.
Topic 3B – Covalent bonding – Evidence of
strength of covalent bonds.
 Topic 3B – Covalent bonding
Formed when 2 atomic orbitals overlap each with a single electron in them.
Topic 3B - Covalent bonding – dot and cross
Draw the outer shell electron distribution for the following molecules
using dot and cross diagrams: H2, F2, NH3, AlCl3, H2O, CF4, CCl4, C2H5OH.

How do know how many bonds a non-metal will make?

 Topic 3B - Covalent bonding – dot and cross

A few simple rules:

•the number of valence electrons usually tells us how many
covalent bonds an element will form:
•If there are more than 2 atoms in the molecule, the atom which
makes the highest number of covalent bonds usually goes in the
middle of the molecule.
Topic 3B - Covalent bonding – dot – cross
diagrams
Topic 3B - Covalent bonding
Topic 3B - Covalent bonding – dot and cross
Draw the outer shell electron distribution for the following molecules using
dot and cross diagrams: O2, N2, CO2, C2H4, C2H2.
Topic 3B- Covalent bonding – Multiple
bonds
Topic 3B- Covalent bonding
Topic 3B - Covalent bonding – Dative
bonding
• Draw the outer shell electron distribution for the following molecules
using dot and cross diagrams: CO, NH4+, H3O+, Al2Cl6

• What do they all have in common?

Topic 3B - Covalent bonding – Dative bonding
Topic 3B - Covalent bonding – Dative bonding
Topic 3B – Covalent bonding
Topic 3B – Covalent bonding
Topic 3B – Structures of carbon – giant lattices

Graphene

Uses of diamonds: cutting and Uses of graphite: lubricant and Uses of graphene: it conducts so
drilling rocks conductor of electricity so as electrodes used in electronics and composite
in batteries and electrolysis materials
Topic 3B – Structures of carbon
Topic 3B – Structures of carbon
Topic 3B – Electrone
Topic 3A Covalent bonding –
Electronegativity
Electronegativity is the ability of an atom to attract the bonding electrons in
a covalent bond.

The difference in electronegativity can also be used to determine the polarity

of a covalent bond. Polar bonds can also lead to polar molecules.
Topic 3A Covalent bonding –
Electronegativity

What are the trends in the change of electronegativity as you go across and down the periodic table?
 Topic 3A Covalent bonding –
Electronegativity

For Edexcel the cut off value between ionic and covalent is 1.7 instead of 1.8.
Topic 3A Covalent bonding –
Electronegativity
Topic 2 Covalent bonding – Polarity of bonds
It is important to realize that every chemical bond has both some ionic (e.g. polar)
and covalent character.
The degree of ionic character in any bond, including covalent bonds, depends on the
difference in electronegativity between the two bonded atoms.
Topic 3B - Bonding – Ionic/covalent character
All about the difference electronegativity between both elements

ANSWER
Topic 3B - Bonding – Ionic/covalent
character
Topic 3B - Bonding – Ionic/covalent
character
Topic 2 Covalent
bonding – Bond
length and bond
strength
Topic 3A Covalent bonding – Shapes of
molecules/ions
Topic 3B - Covalent bonding – Bond
length/strength
Bond length refers to the distance between 2 covalently bonded nuclei (it is twice the atomic
radius in case of diatomic molecules of an element).
It depends on:
 size of atom; the smaller the atoms, the stronger the bond;
 number of bonds: the greater the number of bonding electrons, the more tightly the nuclei
are held together, the shorter the bond.

The bond length is the distance between two atoms when repulsion and attraction cancel
each other.

Bond angle

Bond angle refers to the geometric angle between 2 adjacent bonds.

Topic 2 Covalent
bonding – Shapes of
molecules/ions

Drawing Lewis structures

Topic 2 Covalent bonding – Shapes of molecules/ions

Draw the Lewis

structures for the
following: CH4, H2O
NH3, CO2, HCN
Topic 3C Covalent bonding – Shapes of molecules/ions
Topic 3C - Covalent bonding – Shapes of
molecules/ions
Topic 3C - Covalent bonding – Shapes of
molecules/ions
Topic 3C - Covalent bonding – Shapes of
molecules/ions
To determine the shape of a molecule or molecular ion:
• Draw its dot – cross diagram
• Count the number of bonding pairs and non-bonding pairs/lone pairs.
Treat each multiple bond as 1 bonding pair
• Use the VSEPR
Topic 2 Covalent bonding – Shapes of molecules/ions
VSEPR theory – main ideas:
• Electron domains around a central atom repel each other; the electron domains
arrange themselves in such a way as to reduce the amount of repulsion.

• There is greater repulsion between 2 non-bonding pairs (as they are closer to the
nucleus); then between a non-bonding pair and a bonding pair; least repulsion
between 2 bonding pairs.

• An electron domain = a non-bonding pair, a single, double or triple bond or even

an unpaired electron
Topic 3C Covalent bonding – Shapes of
molecules/ions
Topic 3C - Covalent bonding – Shapes of
molecules/ions
Topic 2 Covalent bonding – Shapes of
molecules/ions
Topic 2 Covalent bonding – Shapes of molecules/ions
Topic 3C Covalent bonding
– Shapes of molecules/ions
• Count the number of electron domains
around the central atom
• Using column 2 in the chart determine
the electron domain geometry of the
molecule.
• Check for non-bonding (lone) pairs,
determine the molecular geometry.
 Electron domain geometry = how all electron
domains (bonding and non-bonding pairs) are
distributed around the central atom; this is not
necessarily the shape of the molecule/molecular
ion.
 Shape of the molecule/molecular ion or
molecular geometry= how the atoms are
arranged in the molecule or ion. To determine
the shape only consider the bonding pairs.
Topic 2 Covalent bonding – Shapes of
molecules/ions

Basic shape = electron domain geometry

Actual shape = molecular geometry
Topic 2 Covalent bonding – Shapes of
molecules/ions

Basic shape = electron domain geometry

Actual shape = molecular geometry
Topic 2 Covalent bonding – Shapes of
molecules and molecular ions
Topic 2 Covalent bonding – Shapes of molecules/ions
Topic 3C - Covalent bonding – Shapes of
molecules/ions
Topic 3C Covalent bonding – Mat
Topic 3A Covalent bonding

• THIS IS THE END

Topic 2 Covalent bonding – Polar molecule/ion
Having polar bonds in a molecule or molecular ion does not mean that the entire
molecule is polar or has a dipole moment. The other factor that needs to be
considered is the shape of the molecule or molecular ion.

Polarity in a molecule or molecular ion refers to the distribution of a charge in the ion;
in a polar molecule or molecular ion charge is spread out unequally because polar
bonds do not cancel out. As a result the molecule or molecular ion has a positive end
and a negative end which is often show as in the figure below:
Topic 2 Covalent bonding – Polar molecule/ion
Topic 2 Covalent bonding – Polar molecule/ion
Topic 2 Covalent bonding – Polar molecule/ion
Topic 2 Covalent bonding – Polar molecule/ion
Topic 2 Covalent bonding – Polar molecule/ion

State whether each molecule or molecular ion below is polar or not, giving
reasons for your answer.
 
(a) HBr (b) N2 (c) ClF3 (d) CCl4 (e) CH3Br (f) SO2

(g) SF6 (h) NH4+ (i) NO2- (j) CH2Cl2 (k) HOCN (l) BeF2

(m) KrF4 (n) CF2Cl2 (o) IF5 (p) AsF5

Topic 2 Covalent bonding – Polar molecule/ion
Topic 2 Covalent bonding – Polar molecule/ion
The polarity or non-polarity of molecules also determines how these molecules are
attracted to each other; it determines the type of intermolecular force (= force of
attraction between molecules in which atoms are bonded covalently).

Intermolecular forces effect mainly the volatility and solubility of a molecular substance.
 
The 3 types of intermolecular forces are (the weakest one first):

• London (dispersion) forces – (instantaneous dipole – induced dipole)

• Permanent dipoles
• Hydrogen bonds
Intermolecular forces are a lot weaker than covalent bonds
Topic 2 Covalent bonding – Intermolecular
forces
There are 3 different types of intermolecular forces

• London forces (instantaneous dipole – induced dipole)

• permanent dipoles
• hydrogen bond
Topic 2 Covalent bonding – Intermolecular
forces?
London forces: Very weak forces, a lot weaker than covalent bonds.

Difference between intermolecular and intramolecular forces

Topic 2 Covalent bonding – Intermolecular forces
London forces

Between non-
polar molecules

London forces occur not just in non-polar

molecules in all molecules!!
Topic 2 Covalent bonding – Intermolecular
forces

Describe and
explain trends.
Topic 2 Covalent bonding – London forces
Topic 2 Covalent
bonding – London
forces

Straight (pentane)
and branched
alkanes.
Topic 2 Covalent bonding – London forces
The size of the London forces increases with:
 
• Relative atomic/molecular mass because greater molecules or atoms have more electrons which when they
all move towards one side within the molecule or atom create much greater polarity. Also electrons in larger
atoms are further away from the nucleus and are more mobile!!!

• Surface area/shape of molecule: in molecules with greater surface area there is also more contact area for
inducement of temporary dipoles in neighboring molecules. If the shape of the molecule allows the
molecules to come closer that also results in greater induced polarity.

Evidence: melting and boiling point increase as:

• you go down in groups in the periodic table.
• with chain length in alkanes.
• In addition, molecules with greater molecular mass always need more energy (higher melting and boiling point) to
increase their motion.
Topic 2 Covalent bonding – Permanent dipoles

Permanent dipoles between polar molecules. Stronger than London

forces.
Topic 2 Covalent bonding – Permanent dipoles

Why is the relative molecular

mass, Mr, similar in both
tables?
Topic 2 Covalent bonding – Permanent dipoles

London forces not always weaker than the attraction in permanent

dipoles
Topic 2 Covalent bonding – Hydrogen bond
Topic 2 Covalent bonding – Hydrogen bond
 Topic 2 Covalent bonding – Hydrogen bond
Hydrogen bonding = strong attraction between highly positive hydrogen atoms (part of a large
dipole or polar bond) and the lone pair of a highly electronegative atom (usually N, O or F) of
another molecule (=intermolecular hydrogen bonds) or of the same molecule (=intramolecular
hydrogen bonds as in proteins).
hydrogen bond =

Needed for a hydrogen bond ?

• A very positive hydrogen because it is bonded onto a small and a …
• very electronegative element like OXYGEN, NITROGEN and FLUORINE (NOF). The hydrogen
nucleus is exposed as the bonding electron pair between the hydrogen and the NOF is pulled
towards the NOF so is too far away and does not shield the hydrogen nucleus…
• another NOF atom; this allows the hydrogen nucleus to attract a lone pair from another
OXYGEN, NITROGEN or FLUORINE atom either in the same (intra) or another molecule (inter).
 Topic 2 Covalent bonding – Hydrogen bond
Strong attraction between:
• highly positive hydrogen atom (part of a large dipole
or polar bond i.e. bonded with N,O or F) and …

• the non-bonding pair of a highly electronegative

atom (usually N,O or F) of a neighbouring molecule
(=intermolecular hydrogen bonds)

• or the same molecule (=intramolecular hydrogen

bonds) as in proteins).
Topic 2 Covalent bonding – Hydrogen bond
• Strongest of the intermolecular forces
• Type of permanent dipole
• Forms when hydrogen bonds with N, O or F
• Strength due to small size of hydrogen atom and large
electronegativity of N, O and F
• Gives water its unique properties
• Affects solubility and volatility
(both increase with H– bonding)
Topic 2 Covalent bonding – Hydrogen bond
Topic 2 Covalent bonding – Hydrogen bond
Topic 2 – Covalent bonding – Intermolecular
forces - Properties
Topic 2 – Covalent bonding – Intermolecular
forces - Properties
Topic 2 – Covalent bonding – Intermolecular
forces - Solubility
Substances that can form hydrogen bonds
with water, such as ammonia and ethanol as
shown below, are usually very soluble in
water.
Topic 2 – Covalent bonding – Intermolecular
forces - Solubility
Topic 2 – Covalent bonding – Intermolecular
forces - Solubility

Both have
hydrogen bonds
Topic 2 – Covalent bonding – Intermolecular forces -
Solubility
Topic 2 – Covalent bonding – Intermolecular forces - Properties
Topic 2 – Metallic bonding
Metallic bonding is the strong electrostatic attraction between metal
ions and the delocalised electrons.
Topic 2B - Structure
Topic 2B – Structure – Simple molecular structures
Topic 2B – Structure – Simple molecular
structures
Topic 2B – Structure – Examples of giant structures
Topic 2 – Bonding and structures