COGNITIVE THEORIES ON LEARNING

a. Kohler’s Insight theory

◦ The German-American psychologist Wolfgang Kohler, argued that animals did not learn everything
through a gradual trial-and-error process, or stimulus-response association.
◦ He suggested that animals solved problems by understanding, like human beings, and were capable of
insight learning.
◦ Kōhler also discovered with von Restoff the isolation effect in memory which contributed to the theory
of memory and recall and developed a non-associationist theory of the nature of associations.
◦ He used a ‘dynamic’ model of human behavior which emphasized the active role of organization in
perception.
b. Kurt Lewin’s Field Theory

◦ Kurt Lewin emphasized the meaning of human behavior in terms of the forces and tension that
moved men to action in his filed theory.
◦ Lewin concluded that individual behavior was always oriented toward a particular goal.
◦ The Field Theory states that:
1. Behavior must be derived from a totality of coexisting facts.
2. The Zeigarnik Effect
◦ Lewin’s student, Bluma Zeigarnik, carried out an experiment on waiter and waitresses of a particular
café in Berlin where orders were not written down but merely kept in mind or remembered.
◦ However, after the customers paid their bills the waiters and waitresses barely remembered their
customers’ orders which came to be known as the Zeigarnik effect. Thus, knowledge learned through
hearing alone cannot be remembered after a series of time elapsed since it happened. Memory of events
can happen if learning is reinforced by note taking, demonstration and other audio-visual materials.
 
c. Jerome Brunner’s Discovery Theory

◦ Jerome Brunner and his discovery learning theory is an inquiry-based, constructivist learning
theory. This takes place in problem solving situations where the learner draws on his/her own past
experiences and existing knowledge to discover facts and relationships and new truths to be
learned.
The constructive learning theory proposes the following:
 active engagement to a certain activity.
 motivation and interest to learn.
 autonomy, responsibility, independence.
 development of creativity and problem-solving skills.
 a tailored learning experience.
 Critics have some cited disadvantages of this theory as follows:
 It creates cognitive overload.
 May develop potential misconceptions; and
 Teachers may fail to detect problems and misconceptions regarding the subject learned.
d. Rumelhart’s Schema Theory

◦According to David Rumelhart “a schemata theory is basically a theory about knowledge.” It is

about how knowledge is represented and how that representation facilitates the use of such
knowledge in certain ways.”
◦Rumelhart focused on the form of the schema theory and on representation and reuse.
◦A schema is a form of retrieval structure, identifying elements from their earlier experience
which can be reused in current situation (Gleitman, 2000).
◦Part of what guides the comprehension, and any later memory information are schemata
(Brewer & Nakamura, 1984; Rumelhart, 1980; Thorndyke, 1984).
e. David Ausubel’s Theory
◦David P. Ausubel, a psychologist, focused on presentational methods of teaching in the
acquisition of subject matter in the curriculum.
◦Ausubel came up with the assimilation theory, which states that the “most meaningful
cognitive learning occurs as a result of interaction between new information and the individual’s
relevant cognitive structures that he or she already possesses or has previously acquired.”
◦Ausubel (1978) distinguishes between types of learning by using a model consisting two
dimensions of learning; one on the continuum from rote to meaningful learning; and the other on
the continuum from reception to discovery learning.
  Ausubel posits that knowledge dimensions consist of four quadrants:
 Meaningful reception learning. The learner understands, assimilates and practices what was learned.
 Rote reception learning. The learner repeats from memory what he/she has learned after constant
attention to meaning.
 Meaningful discovery learning. The learner perceives the significance of knowledge learned.
 Rote discovery learning. The learner discerns new facts, however, needs to identify its meaning to
present events.
 ◦Types of Meaningful Learning
1. Representational or Vocabulary Learning
◦Vocabulary learning consists of learning single words or what is represented by them.
2. Concept Learning
◦Defined as ‘objects, events, situations or properties that possess common attributes and are
designated by some signs or symbols.
Ausubel identified two types of concept acquisition:
a. Concept formation. Develops in young children which occurs from objects seen and heard.
b. Concept assimilation which develops in school children and adults with empirical reasoning and logical
implications of events leading towards knowledge acquisition and application.
 3. Propositional Learning:
◦ In this form of learning, it is not simply the meaning of single words that are learned, but the meaning
of sentences that contain composite ideas. Syntax and grammatical rules must also be understood.
◦ Ausubel points out that there is a difference between meaningful earning and the learning of
meaningful material. In order for materials to be learned meaningfully, it is necessary to meet three criteria:
 In the case of meaningful learning, the student must adopt an appropriate learning ‘set’ to learn the task
meaningfully, as opposed to rote of fashion learning.
 The learning task itself must have logical meaning, in that relates to the student’s own cognitive structure in a
sensible way.
 The student’s own cognitive structures must contain specifically relevant ideas with which the new material
can interact.
3.Social Theories

Albert Bandura’s Social Learning Theory

◦Albert Bandura states that learning involves functionalism, interactionalism, and significant
symbolism. He stressed that individuals were capable of self-regulation and self-direction.
◦Bandura describes the social process, as one of reciprocal determinations and that ‘people are
not simply reactors to external influences. The theory of reciprocal determinism means that the
individual and environmental influences are interdependent. Motivation to learn arises, or fails to, in
a social context of mutual expectation by teachers and learners (Jarvis, 2003).
◦Social learning theory explains human behavior in terms of continuous reciprocal interaction
between cognitive, behavioral, and environmental influences.
◦ Bandura Proposed the Conditions Necessary for Effective Modeling
a. Attention
◦ Attention refers to the individual’s focus or concentration. This is affected by various factors which
increase or decrease the amount of attention paid to a particular learning stimulus. For example, doing one
task at a time according to priority to ensure efficient and effective accomplishment of tasks. Focusing and
attention in doing a task promotes better acquisition of knowledge and enhance skills development.
◦ 
a. Retention
◦ This refers to the amount of information remembered including symbolic coding, mental images,
cognitive organization, symbolic recall and motor rehearsal. This is also directly related to focusing and
attention to the information observed.
◦ 
a. Reproduction
◦ Reproduction is the replication of an image including physical capabilities, and self-observation.
◦ 
a. Motivation
◦ Motivation is the determination to find a reason to learn or imitate. This includes the past such as in
traditional behaviorism; promised as in imagined incentives and vicarious motivation as in seeing and
recalling the reinforced model.