Quantum numbers and orbital states

Quantum numbers Orbital

Principal (n) Azimuthal (l) Magnetic (ml)
1 0 (s) 0 1s
2 0 (s) 0 2s
1 (p) +1 2px
1 (p) 0 2py
1 (p) -1 2pz
3 0 (s) 0 3s
1 (p) +1 3px
1 (p) 0 3py
1 (p) -1 3pz
2 (d) +2 3dxy
2 (d) +1 3dxz
2 (d) 0 3dyz
2 (d) -1 3dx2 – y2
2 (d) -2 3dz2
The Shapes of the s, p, and d Orbitals
f-Orbitals
 The Aufbau Principle
• Each electron occupies
the lowest energy orbital
• All orbitals related to an
energy level are of equal
energy.
– Eg. The three 2p orbitals
are the same energy level. All equivalent
energy
 Pauli Exclusion Principle
• A maximum of two
electrons may occupy a
single orbital, but only if
the electrons have
opposite spins.
– Spin -- Electrons has an
associated “spin,” either
one way or the other, like
Box = orbital a top.
Arrow = electron – These spins are called
“spin up” and “spin
 Hund’s Rule
Eg. Nitrogen:
• Single electrons with
1s2 2s2 2p3
the same spin must
occupy each
degenerate orbital 1s2 2s2 2p3

before additional NOT

electrons with
opposite spins can 1s2 2s2 2p3

occupy the same

orbitals.
 Electronic Configuration
Eg. Arsenic (As)
• 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d10 4p3
• The first number represents the row of the
atom, or the principal quantum number (n)
• The character is the sub-orbital (ml)
• The superscript is the total number of
electrons in the suborbital
 d and d rules
4 9

• When an electronic configuration ends with 4

or 9 electrons in the d-suborbital the atom is
relatively unstable
• Promotion of electrons from the s-suborbital
to the d-orbital stabilizes the atom.
• E.g. Chromium:

• 1s22s22p63s23p64s23d4  1s22s22p63s23p64s13d5
 Father of Periodic Table—Dimitri Mendeleev

• Mendeleev was the first scientist to notice the

relationship between the elements
– Arranged his periodic table by atomic mass
– Said properties of unknown elements could be predicted
by the properties of elements around the missing element

Image taken from:

http://jscms.jrn.columbia.edu/cns/2006-04-18/fido-luxuriantflowinghair/
mendeleev
 Henry Moseley
• Moseley later discovered that the periodic
nature of the elements was associated with
atomic number, not atomic mass

• Image taken from:

• http://dewey.library.upenn.edu/sceti/smith/
 The Periodic Table

Column = Group or
Family
18 columns on the
Periodic Table

Row = Period
7 rows on the
Periodic Table
 Periods
•Each row is called a “period”
•The elements in each period have
the same number of energy levels

1st Period = 1 E. Level

2nd Period = 2 E. Levels
3rd Period = 3 E. Levels
4th Period = 4 E. Levels
5th Period = 5 E. Levels
6th Period = 6 E. Levels
7th Period = 7 E. Levels
Middle School Science
Image: Chem4kids.com
 Groups
•Each column is called a “group”
•Each element in a group has the same number of electrons
in their outermost energy level (valence electrons)

Group 1 = 1 electron Except for He, it

Group 2 = 2 electrons has 2 electrons

Group 8 =
8 electrons
 Metals, Nonmetals, and
Only Semi-metals Nonmetals are on the
nonmetal on the
metal side right of the stair-step

Metals are to the

left of the
stair- step

Semi-metals,
“metalloids,”
touch the
stair-step
 Special Rows on the PT

Lanthanides

Actinides
 The Groups of the Periodic Table
• Group 1: The Alkali Metals
• Most reactive metals on the PT 1
H
• Rarely found free in nature 1.008

• Charge of 1—1 valence electron Li

6.941

11
Na
22.990

19
K
- 39.098

- - 37
- - Rb
+
+++++++
85.468

- -
++ + 55
Cs
- 132.905

- - 87
-
Fr
(223)
 The Groups of the Periodic Table
• Group 2: The Alkaline Earth Metals
– Still quite reactive
– Charge of 2—2 valence electrons
 T he Groups of the Periodic Table
• Groups 3-12: Transition Metals
– Found freely and in compounds in nature
– Charge is usually 2 but can vary—usually 2
valence electrons

• Group 13: Boron Family

– Charge is 3—3 valence electrons
 The Groups of the Periodic Table
• Group 14: The Carbon Family
– Contains elements that can form unusual bonds
(carbon and silicon)
– Charge is +4 or -4—contains 4 valence electrons

• Group 15: The Nitrogen Family

– Charge is -3—contains 5 valence electrons
 The Groups of the Periodic Table
• Group 16: The Oxygen Family
– Also known as the chalcogens
– Charge is -2 has 6 valence electrons

• Group 17: The Halogens

– Most reactive nonmetals
– charge is -1 has 7 valence electrons

• Group 18: The Noble Gases (The Inert Gases)

– Nonreactive
– Charge is 0—2 or 8 valence electrons
Concepts of Chemical Bonding
Chemical Bonds Types

Ionic Covalent Metallic

Electrostatic attraction Sharing of Metal atoms
between ions electrons bonded to
several other
atoms
 Ionic Bonding

When a metal and a nonmetal

reacts
 Ionic Bond
• Between atoms of metals and nonmetals
with very different electronegativity
• Bond formed by transfer of electrons
• Produce charged ions.
• Conductors and have high melting point.
• Examples; NaCl, CaCl2, K2O
Energetics of Ionic Bonding
2Na(s) + Cl2(g) -------> 2NaCl(s)

it takes 495 kJ/mol to

remove 1 electron
from sodium.
495x2 = 990 kJ/2 Na
 Energetics of Ionic Bonding
We get 349 kJ/mol Cl back by
giving 1 electron to each to 1 mole
of Cl2.

-349x2 = -700 kJ/mol Cl2

990 kJ/2Na – 700 kJ/Mol Cl2 = 290kJ
 Energetics of Ionic Bonding
• There must be a
third factor ….
• The electrostatic
attraction
• Between Na+ and Cl-.

• The ionic Bond

 Lattice Energy
• This third piece of the puzzle is the lattice
energy:
The energy required to completely separate a mole of
a solid ionic compound into its gaseous ions.
• The energy associated with electrostatic
interactions is governed by Coulomb’s law:
Q1Q2
Eel = 
d
 Lattice Energy
Q1Q2
Eel = 
d
 Lattice Energy
• Lattice energy increases with the charge on the
ions.
• It also increases with decreasing size of ions.
 COVALENT BOND

bond formed by the sharing of

electrons
 Covalent Bond
• Between nonmetallic elements of similar
electronegativity.
• Formed by sharing electron pairs
• Stable non-ionizing molecules
• They are not conductors at any state
• Examples; O2, CO2, C2H6, H2O, SiC
• In these bonds atoms share electrons.
• The electrons that can be shared are the
Valence electrons.
Covalent Bonding

• There are several

electrostatic interactions in
these bonds:
– Attractions between electrons
and nuclei
– Repulsions between electrons
– Repulsions between nuclei
Covalent bonds- Two atoms share one or more pairs of outer-shell
electrons.

Oxygen Atom Oxygen Atom

Oxygen Molecule (O2)

 Polar Covalent Bonds

• Covalent bond, sharing

electrons,
• But electron sharing not
always equal.

• Fluorine pulls harder on the shared

electrons than hydrogen does.
• Therefore, the fluorine end has more
electron density than the hydrogen end.
• But who pulls harder?
 Electronegativity:
H-F - H + F >> H-H - H + H or F-F  F + F

H-F bond much stronger than H-H or F-F bond.

Reason:

there is an ionic component making the H-F bond

polar
 Electronegativity:

A measure of how much an atom attracts electrons when

it is in a molecule
OR
• The ability of atoms in a molecule to attract electrons to itself
Water is a polar molecule because oxygen is more electronegative than
hydrogen, and therefore electrons are pulled closer to oxygen.
 Polar Covalent Bonds
• When two atoms share
electrons unequally, a bond
dipole results.
• The dipole moment, ,
produced by two equal but
opposite charges separated
by a distance, r, is calculated:
 = Qr
• It is measured in debyes (D).
Polar Covalent Bonds
The greater the
difference in
electronegativity,
the more polar is
the bond.
 Lewis symbols
• A convenient way to keep track of the
valence electrons in an atom or
molecule
• Lewis dot symbol

Each dot is one valence electron

• Lewis structures for 16
elements

• It is rare to use Lewis

dot structures for other
elements such as
transition metals
One dot = 1 electron
 Lewis Structures
Diagrams for bonding in
molecules

Lines correspond to 2 electrons in bond

Lewis structures are representations of
molecules showing all valence electrons,
bonding and nonbonding.
Lewis Structures
Writing Lewis Structures