Unit 4 MSE Heat Treatment of Metals

Introduction
Prof. A.V.Dube
Most of the images are
courtesy of the book
“ Manufacturing
Engineering and
Technology” by Serope
Kalpakjian, Steven Schmid.
“Material Science and Engg.

an Introduction” by
William D. Callister, Jr. &
David G. Rethwisch.
Few were adopted from “Fundamentals of Modern

Manufacturing: Materials, Processes, and Systems” by
Mikell P Groover
Images collected from Wikipedia and google images were also used.
Basic Concepts
• Alloy
• A metal made by combining two or more elements, at least one of which is metallic.
Basic Concepts
• Alloy
• A metal made by combining two or more elements, at least one of which is metallic.
• categories of alloys are
• Solid solutions and
• Intermediate phases.
• Solid Solution: one element is dissolved in another to form a single-phase structure.

Phase diagram
Phase : A region of material having uniform physical and chemical properties
• Solid phase: represented by α, β, ϒ, δ etc

• Liquid phase : represented by L
Equilibrium phase diagram- Complete solid solubility
• Nickel and Copper form a complete solid solution
• Nickel’s melting point : 1453⁰C
• Copper’s melting point : 1084⁰C
Two phase region
Single liquid phase region • Solid phase: represented by α, β, ϒ, δ etc

• Liquid phase : represented by L
Single solid phase region

Liquid phase
Two phase region
Single liquid phase region

Liquid phase
Two phase region

Solid +Liquid
phase

Liquid phase
Two phase region

Solid +Liquid
phase
Solid phase
Liquid phase
Two phase region
60 % Ni 40% Cu

Cl Cα
53% Liquid of Ni, 47% of Cu

68% solid of Ni, 32% of Cu
Cl Cα

60% of Ni, 40% Cu

The Tin–Lead Alloy System
α and β: solid phase 327⁰C
232⁰C/
Eutectic temperature: 183⁰C / 362 ⁰C 449⁰F
Lead Tin
The Liquid
Tin–Lead Alloy System
Liquid
10 wt% of Sn
10
Liquid
10 wt% of Sn
α+ L
7 wt% Sn
10
Liquid
10 wt% of Sn
α+ L
7 wt% Sn
α
10 wt% Sn
10
Liquid
10 wt% of Sn
α+ L
7 wt% Sn
α
10 wt% Sn
α+ β
β
10
Liquid
The
LiquidTin–Lead Alloy System
40% wt of Sn
60% wt of Pb
The
Liquid
40% wt of Sn
60% wt of Pb
α+ L
The
Liquid
40% wt of Sn
60% wt of Pb
α+ L
α : 18% wt of Sn & 82% wt of Pb
L : 58 % wt of Sn & 62 % wt of Pb
CL
Cα
The
Liquid
40% wt of Sn
60% wt of Pb
α+ L

L : 50 % wt of Sn & 50 % wt of Pb
α+ β
α : 8% wt of Sn
β : 92% wt of Pb
Cα CL
The
Liquid
40% wt of Sn
60% wt of Pb
α+ L

L : 50 % wt of Sn & 50 % wt of Pb
α+ β
α : 8% wt of Sn
β : 92% wt of Pb
Cα CL
DEVELOPMENT OF MICROSTRUCTURE
The Iron Carbon System
Ferrite: α Ferrite is a solid solution of Body Centered Cubic (BCC) iron,
• Relatively soft and ductile
• Magnetic from room temperature to 768⁰C,
• Maximum solid solubility of 0.022% C at a temperature of 727◦C
Austenite: γ –iron: FCC structure
• Denser than ferrite
• Solid solubility of up to 2.11%Cat 1148◦C.
• Single-phase FCC structure is ductile at elevated temperatures
• Non magentic
Cementite: 100 % Fe3C : carbon content 6.67%

• Hard and brittle
Ferrite: α Ferrite is a solid solution of Body Centered Cubic (BCC) iron,
• Maximum solid solubility of 0.022% C at a temperature of 727◦C
• Solid solubility of up to 2.11%Cat 1148◦C.
• Single-phase FCC structure is ductile at elevated temperatures
• Non magentic

The Iron Carbon System A4
Ferrite:α Ferrite is a solid solution of Body Centered Cubic (BCC) iron, δ
• Single-phase FCC structure is ductile at elevated
temperatures
• Non magentic
A3
A1
A2
The
Ferrite:
Iron Carbon System
α Ferrite is a solid solution of Body Centered Cubic (BCC) iron,
900⁰ ϒ Austenite
C
α+ϒ
Ferrite + ϒ + Fe3 C
A Hypoeutectoid steel, As the temperature drops, the precipitation of Austenite Austenite + Cementite
ferrite increases progressively, and the amount of the remaining austenite
727⁰C
decreases progressively its carbon content being increased. α
ϒ + Fe3 C
Pearlite with excess ferrite Pearlite with excess cementite
0.2 0.8 2
Carbon wt %
Ferrite: α Ferrite is a solid solution of Body Centered Cubic (BCC) iron, γ
A eutectoid steel, when cooled at very slow rates from temperatures within the Eutectoid Point
austenitic field, undergoes no change until at eutectoid temperature is reached, then
pearlite is formed
Eutectoid Temp.
𝛾 ⇌ 𝛼 (0.022 wt% C) + Fe3C
Pearlite
0.8
Heat Treatment
Fe3 C Hard & Brittle Fe3 C Hard

α soft & ductile
Steel Hardness Wt % C Microstructure Heat

HRC
Treatment
A 15 0.8 Coarse Pearlite
Annealing
B 30 0.8 Fine Pearlite
Normalizing
C 45 0.8 Bainite
Austempering
D 55 0.8 Tempered
Martensite Tempering
E 65 0.8 Martensite
Quenching
Heat Treatment of
Metal
Prof. A.V.Dube
This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY-SA
Assignment
• You have to prepare a notes based on class lectures
• Open book questions will be given.
No readymade notes will be given.

What are you going to learn?
• Purpose of heat treatment
• Design parameters of heat treatment
• Heat treatment process
This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY-SA
Heat Treatment
Temperature
5
3 2 1
4
Time
1 Annealing Slow Cooling (Furnace) Coarse Pearlite
2 Normalizing Faster Cooling (Air) Fine Pearlite
3 Austempering Interrupted Quench Bainite
Tempering Heating after Quench Tempered Martensite

4
5 Quenching Fast Cooling (Water) Martensite
900⁰C ϒ Austenite
α+ϒ
Ferrite + Austenite ϒ + Fe3 C
Austenite + Cementite
727⁰C
α
α + Fe3 C
0.2 Hypoeutectoid steel 0.8 Hyper eutectoid steel 2

Carbon wt %
The Fe-C phase diagram- at equilibrium
ϒ Austenite
• Equilibrium transformation are driven by diffusion 900⁰
C
of atoms
• Microstructure transformation depends on time α+ϒ
Austenite Austenite + Cementite
727⁰C
α
ϒ + Fe3 C
0.2 0.8 2
Carbon wt %
900⁰ ϒ Austenite
C
α+ϒ
727⁰C
α
α + Fe3 C
0.2 0.8 2
Carbon wt %
The Fe-C phase diagram- at equilibrium
• Microstructure transformation depends on time Austenite ϒ
Coarse Pearlite Fine Pearlite
Annealing Normalizing
Slow Cooling Fast Cooling

(Furnace cooling) (air cooling)
Non equilibrium phases and steel microstructure
Austenite ϒ
Moderate Rapid
Slow Cool Quench
Cool
Martensite
Pearlite Bainite (BCT phase,
(α+ Fe3C layer) (α+ Fe3C needles) diffusionless
transformation)
Martensite is time independent
Microstructures in a eutectoid steel: (a) Pearlite formed at 720 °C; (b) bainite formed at 290 °C; (c) bainite formed at 180 °C; (d) martensite.
M.J. Peet, 6 - Bainitic steels and alloys for power plants, Editor(s): Amir Shirzadi, Susan Jackson, In Woodhead Publishing Series in Energy, Structural Alloys for Power Plants, Woodhead Publishing, 2014, Pages 153-187, ISBN 9780857092380,
Austenite ϒ
Moderate Rapid
Slow Cool Quench
Cool
Martensite
transformation)
Reheat
Spheroidite
Microstructures in a eutectoid steel: (a) Pearlite formed at 720 °C; (b) bainite formed at 290 °C; (c) bainite formed at 180 °C; (d) martensite.
Austenite ϒ
Moderate Rapid
Slow Cool Quench
Cool
Martensite
transformation)
Reheat
Reheat
Spheroidite
Microstructures in a eutectoid steel: (a) Pearlite formed at
720 °C; (b) bainite formed at 290 °C; (c) bainite formed at Tempered Martensite
180 °C; (d) martensite.
(α+ very fine Fe3C
particle)
Microstructure Phases present Arrangement of phases Mechanical properties (relative)

Spheriodite α+Fe3C Relatively small Fe3C spherelike High toughness, lower hardness than pearlite,
particles in an 𝛼-ferrite matrix prevent cracking, used in cold work
Coarse pearlite α+Fe3C Alternating layers of 𝛼-ferrite Harder and stronger than
and Fe3C that are relatively spheroidite, but not as ductile
thick as spheroidite
Fine pearlite α+Fe3C Alternating layers of 𝛼-ferrite Harder and stronger than coarse pearlite, but not as
and Fe3C that are relatively ductile as coarse pearlite
thin
Bainite α+Fe3C Very fine and elongated particles of Harder and stronger than fine
Fe3C in an 𝛼-ferrite matrix pearlite; less hard than
martensite; more ductile than
martensite
Tempered α+Fe3C Very small Fe3C spherelike Strong; not as hard as martensite,
martensite particles in an 𝛼-ferrite matrix but much more ductile than
martensite
Martensite Body-centered, Needle-shaped grains Very hard and very brittle

tetragonal, single
phase
Austenite ϒ
Moderate Rapid
Slow Cool Quench
Cool
Martensite
transformation)
Reheat
Reheat
Spheroidite
Tempered Martensite
(α+ very fine Fe3C
particle)
Austenite ϒ
Moderate Rapid
Slow Cool Quench
Cool
Martensite
transformation)
Reheat
Tempered Martensite
(α+ very fine Fe3C
particle)
Time Temperature Transformation Diagram
• For Eutectoid Steel (0.8 wt % C)
900⁰C ϒ Austenite
Stable ϒ
α+ϒ
Ferrite + Austenite ϒ + Fe3 C Unstable ϒ ts Start tf

Austenite + Cementite Finish
727⁰C
Temperature
α Pearlite Pearlite
α + Fe3 C
0.2 0.8 2
Log Time
Carbon wt %
900⁰ ϒ Austenite
C
Stable ϒ
α+ϒ
Ferrite + ϒ + Fe3 C Unstable ϒ ts Start tf Finish

Coarse Annealing
727⁰C
Pearlite
Temperature
α ϒ + Pearlite
Pearlite
ϒ + Fe3 C
0.2 0.8 2
Log Time
Carbon wt %
Annealing
• Process Annealing
• Stress Relief
Process
annealing
Annealing
• Stress Relief
Cracking due to internal residual stress
https://www.metallurgyfordummies.com/do-you-know-the-stress-corrosion-cracking.html
Annealing
• Stress Relief
Cracking due to internal residual stress
https://www.protoxrd.com/applications/pipelines
Oviedo, Jose & Payer, Joe & Lewandowski, John. (2000). Environmental Assisted Cracking of AISI 305, AISI 410 Stainless Steels and Low Alloy Steel Bolts/Fasteners in Chloride Containing Environments.
Annealing
• Stress Relief
• Full Annealing
Annealing
• Stress Relief
• Full Annealing
• Spheroidizing
Stable ϒ Annealing
727⁰C Normalizing
Unstable ϒ ts Start tf Finish
Coarse Pearlite
Temperature
ϒ + Pearlite
Fine Pearlite
Pearlite
Austempering Bainite
Ms Martensite Start
Quench ϒ + Martensite
Mf Martensite Finish
Martensite
Log Time
Austempering
Stable ϒ
727⁰C
Coarse Pearlite
ϒ + Pearlite
Fine Pearlite
Temperature
Pearlite
Austempering
Bainite
Ms Martensite Start
ϒ + Martensite
Martensite
Log Time
Stable ϒ

Coarse Annealing
Pearlite
Temperature
ϒ + Pearlite
Quench Fine Pearlite
Normalizing Pearlite
Ms Martensite Start
ϒ + Martensite
Martensite
Log Time
Quenching
The quenching step involves cooling the austenite rapidly

enough so austenite is transformed into martensite.
Same composition as austenite
Austenite : FCC
Martensite BCT
The slower cooling rate reduces the

possibility of hardening defects
Martempering (Marquenching)
• Martempering is a form of heat
treatment applied as an interrupted Stable ϒ
quench of steels typically in a
molten salt bath at a temperature Unstable ϒ ts Start tf Finish
Annealing
right above the martensite start Coarse
Pearlite
Temperature
ϒ + Pearlite
temperature. Fine Pearlite
Pearlite
• The purpose is to delay the cooling
for a length of time to equalise the
temperature throughout the piece.
• This will minimise distortion,
cracking and residual stress. Quench
Log Time
Tempering
• Tempering is a heat treatment applied to
hardened steels to reduce brittleness,
increase ductility and toughness, and
relieve stresses in the martensite structure.
http://threeplanes.net/martensite.html
Pan, L.; Kwok, C.T.; Lo, K.H. Effect of Multiple-Pass Friction Stir Processing on Hardness and Corrosion Resistance of Martensitic Stainless Steel. Coatings 2019, 9, 620. https://doi.org/10.3390/coatings9100620
Patenting
• Patenting of steel wire is a common process
whereby the wire is heated to ∼950°C to
form austenite, and then rapidly quenched in
molten lead held at ∼500°C. The fine-grained
structure so formed.
• This process is conducted with the aim of
obtaining a fine-grained uniform pearlitic
structure which will be susceptible to plastic
deformation in drawing processes
Patenting
• Patenting of steel wire is a common process
whereby the wire is heated to ∼950°C to
form austenite, and then rapidly quenched in
molten lead held at ∼500°C. The fine-grained
structure so formed.
• This process is conducted with the aim of
obtaining a fine-grained uniform pearlitic
structure which will be susceptible to plastic
deformation in drawing processes
TTT Diagram for eutectoid
composition Coarse
Fine
Coarse
Fine
A: Austenite
P: Pearlite
B: Bainite
M: Martensite
composition
Specify the nature of the final microstructure (% bainite,
martensite, pearlite etc) for the alloy that is subjected to the
following time–temperature treatments
A: Austenite
P: Pearlite
B: Bainite
M: Martensite
composition
Specify the nature of the final microstructure (% bainite,
50% Pearlite 50% Bainite

50% Martensite
A: Austenite 50% Martensite
P: Pearlite
B: Bainite
M: Martensite
composition
Specify the nature of the final microstructure (% bainite, 50% Pearlite
50% Austenite
50% Pearlite
50% Bainite
50% Pearlite
50% Austenite
50% Pearlite
A: Austenite 50% Bainite
P: Pearlite
B: Bainite
M: Martensite
The Jominy End-Quench Test
Hardenability
• The influence of alloy composition on the
ability of a steel alloy to transform to
martensite for a particular quenching
treatment is related to a parameter called
hardenability.
• The term Hardenability is used to measure
the depth of hardness achieved
Hardenability
Hardenability
Case Hardening
1. Carburizing (gas, liquid, and pack carburizing)
2. Carbonitriding
3. Cyaniding
4. Nitriding
5. Boronizing
6. Flame hardening
7. Induction hardening
8. Laser-beam hardening
Carburizing
• most common surface-hardening treatment
• Heating a part of low carbon steel in the presence of a carbon-rich environment so that C
is diffused into the surface
• the surface is converted to a high carbon steel, capable of higher hardness than the low-C
core
• Methods
• Pack carburizing: use of carbonaceous materials such as charcoal or coke packed in a closed container
with the parts.
• gas carburizing, uses hydrocarbon fuels such as propane (C3H8) inside a sealed furnace to diffuse
carbon into the parts.
• liquid carburizing, which employs a molten salt bath containing sodium cyanide (NaCN), barium
chloride (BaCl2), and other compounds to diffuse carbon into the steel.
• Typical carburizing temperatures are 875° to 925°C (1600°–1700°F), well into the austenite range
Nitriding
• Nitrogen is diffused into the surfaces of special alloy steels to produce a thin hard casing
without quenching
• steel must contain certain alloying ingredients such as aluminum (0.85–1.5%) or
chromium (5% or more) to form nitride compound.
• gas nitriding: steel parts are heated in an atmosphere of ammonia (NH3) or other nitrogen-rich gas
mixture;
• liquid nitriding, in which the parts are dipped in molten cyanide salt baths.
• processes are carried out at around 500°C (950°F)
• Case thicknesses range as low as 0.025 mm (0.001 in) and up to around 0.5 mm (0.020
in), with hardnesses up to HRC 70.
Carbonitriding
• Both carbon and nitrogen are absorbed into the steel surface, usually by heating in a
furnace containing carbon and ammonia.
• Case thickness is usually 0.07 to 0.5 mm (0.003–0.020 in), with hardness comparable with
those of the other two treatments.
Flame hardening
• heating the work surface by means of one or more torches followed by rapid quenching.
• Normally, case depth up to 3mm can be achieved.
https://www.thermexmetal.com/flame-hardening
Induction heating
• application of electromagnetically induced energy supplied by an induction coil to an electrically conductive work part.
• The hardened depth decreases with increasing frequency in induction hardening, the heating time is usually a few seconds.
Immediately after heating water jets are activated to quench the surface
• Martensite is produced at the surface, making it hard and wear resistant.
Influence of Other Alloying Elements
Heat Treatment of Nonferrous Alloys
• Nonferrous alloys and some stainless steels cannot be heat
treated by the techniques described for ferrous alloys.
• Nonferrous alloys do not undergo phase transformations
like those in steels
• PRECIPITATION HARDENING.
• Small particles of a different phase, called precipitates, are
uniformly dispersed in the matrix of the original phase
• Precipitates form because the solid solubility of one element
(one component of the alloy) in the other is exceeded.
Solution heat
• Age Hardening treatment
• Delaying the PRECIPITATION HARDENING time

Precipitation
Age hardening
heat treatment
Relation of Design to Heat Treatment
• Sharp internal or external corners should be avoided, as otherwise stress concentrations at these corners may
raise the level of stresses high enough to cause cracking.
• The part should have its thicknesses as nearly uniform as possible.
• The transition between regions of different thicknesses should be made smooth.
• Parts with holes, grooves, keyways, splines, and asymmetrical shapes may be difficult to heat treat, because they
may crack during quenching.
• Large surfaces with thin cross-sections are likely to warp.
• Hot forgings and hot steel-mill products may have a decarburized skin which may not respond successfully to
heat treatment.
Reading material
• Chapter 4 from Book: “ Manufacturing Engineering and Technology” by Serope
Kalpakjian, Steven Schmid.
• Chapter 10: Section 10.5 onwards, from Book ““Material Science and Engg. an
Introduction” by William D. Callister, Jr. & David G. Rethwisch.
• Chapter 11: Section 11.8 onwards from Book ““Material Science and Engg. an
Introduction” by William D. Callister, Jr. & David G. Rethwisch.
Annealing
Normalizing
Tempering
Uniform coarse pearlite Non -Uniform coarse pearlite

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Introduction

“Material Science and Engg.

Few were adopted from “Fundamentals of Modern

• Solid Solution: one element is dissolved in another to form a single-phase structure.

• Solid phase: represented by α, β, ϒ, δ etc

Two phase region

Single liquid phase region • Solid phase: represented by α, β, ϒ, δ etc

Single solid phase region

Single liquid phase region

Single solid phase region

Single liquid phase region

Single solid phase region

Single liquid phase region

Single solid phase region

Single solid phase region

Single solid phase region

53% Liquid of Ni, 47% of Cu

Single solid phase region

Single solid phase region

60% of Ni, 40% Cu

Single solid phase region

α : 18% wt of Sn & 82% wt of Pb

α : 18% wt of Sn & 82% wt of Pb

Cementite: 100 % Fe3C : carbon content 6.67%

Cementite: 100 % Fe3C : carbon content 6.67%

Pearlite with excess ferrite Pearlite with excess cementite

Fe3 C Hard & Brittle Fe3 C Hard

Steel Hardness Wt % C Microstructure Heat

No readymade notes will be given.

1 Annealing Slow Cooling (Furnace) Coarse Pearlite

2 Normalizing Faster Cooling (Air) Fine Pearlite

3 Austempering Interrupted Quench Bainite

Tempering Heating after Quench Tempered Martensite

Pearlite with excess ferrite Pearlite with excess cementite

0.2 Hypoeutectoid steel 0.8 Hyper eutectoid steel 2

• Microstructure transformation depends on time α+ϒ

Pearlite with excess ferrite Pearlite with excess cementite

Pearlite with excess ferrite Pearlite with excess cementite

Coarse Pearlite Fine Pearlite

Slow Cooling Fast Cooling

Martensite is time independent

Microstructure Phases present Arrangement of phases Mechanical properties (relative)

Martensite Body-centered, Needle-shaped grains Very hard and very brittle

Ferrite + Austenite ϒ + Fe3 C Unstable ϒ ts Start tf

Pearlite with excess ferrite Pearlite with excess cementite

Ferrite + ϒ + Fe3 C Unstable ϒ ts Start tf Finish

Pearlite with excess ferrite Pearlite with excess cementite

Cracking due to internal residual stress

Cracking due to internal residual stress

Unstable ϒ ts Start tf Finish

Unstable ϒ ts Start tf Finish

The quenching step involves cooling the austenite rapidly

Same composition as austenite

The slower cooling rate reduces the

50% Pearlite 50% Bainite

• Age Hardening treatment

• Delaying the PRECIPITATION HARDENING time

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