BIOLOGY PROJECT

NAME-KRATI PANDEY
CLASS-XII B
 HARDY-WEINBERG
EQUILIBRIUM

Hardy- Weinberg principle is also called

genetic equilibrium.
• It was discovered independently in 1908 by Wilhelm
Weinberg, a German physician, and Godfrey Harold
Hardy, a British mathematician.
• This principle says that allele frequencies in a
population are stable and is constant from
generation to generation unless there is some
type of evolutionary force acting on them.
 SUM TOTAL OF
ALL THE ALLELIC
FREQUINCIES IS 1

For example
If we have these frogs here, assume they are all same species in this
example, but there are some slight difference . Some of the frogs are
lighter green and some are darker green.
Genotypes of frogs will be – GG, Gg or gg.
Allele Frequency in this population – a frequency of 0.6 of the
alleles are G, whereas a frequency of 0.4 are g .
Notice that the frequencies add up to 1 !
 EQUATIONS ON Hardy-Weinberg EQUILIBRIUM

• So there are basically two equations on the Hardy-Weinberg

Principle:-

• The first equation is used to find the allele frequency

whereas the second equation is to find the genotype
frequencies in a population.
• When frequency measured differ expected values, the
difference indicates the extent of evolutionary change.
FIRST EQUATION
• p+q=1
• [Where p= dominant allele frequency and q= recessive
allele frequency]
 For example- in our previous example of frogs,
a frequency of 0.6 (60%) of the alleles
were G (dominant) whereas a frequency
of 0.4 (40%) of the total allele were g
(recessive).
 So p+q = 0.6+0.4= 1
 SECOND EQUATION - p^2+2pq+q^2=1
• We have frogs with dark green color and light green color.
• We know that the light green frog has genotype gg but what if we
want to know how many dark green frog has genotype GG and Gg ?
• That’s where the second equation come in handy. This equation is
used to determine the genotype frequencies.
 For example:- we have 500 frogs out of which 375 are
dark green and 125 are light green. Dark green has the
genotypes GG and Gg whereas light green has the
genotype gg. Calculate the genotypic frequencies.

• Total Number Of Frogs=500

• Frogs with genotype -) GG+Gg= 375 -) gg=125
• Genotypic Frequency of gg (q^2) = 125/500= 0.25
• So,q=0.5
• From p+q=1 -) p = 1-q = 1-0.5 = 0.5
• Therefore, GG (p^2) = (0.5)^2 = 0.25 and
Gg (2pq)= 2*0.5*0.5= 0.5
• p^2+2pq+q^2 = 0.25+0.5+0.25 = 1
 Factors Affecting Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium

• The following factors affect the Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium:-

1. Gene Flow- when migration of a section of population to another
place and population occurs, gene frequencies change in the original as
well as in the new population.
• New genes/alleles are added in the new population and these are lost
from the old population.
• When such migration occurs many times, it results in Gene Flow.
2. Genetic Drift- when genetic migration occurs by chance, it is termed
as Genetic Drift.
Note – The original drifted population becomes founders
and the effect is called Founder Effect.
3. Mutation- variations due to mutation results in changed
frequencies of genes and alleles in future generations. Over
few generations, this would result in Speciation.
4. Genetic Recombination- variation due to recombination
during gametogenesis also results in changed frequency of
genes and alleles in future generation.
5. Natural Selection-Natural selection is a mechanism of
evolution. Organisms that are more adapted to their
environment are more likely to survive and pass on the genes
that aided their success. This process causes species to
change and diverge over time.
• Natural Selection can lead to stabilisation (in which
more individuals acquire mean character value),
directional changes (more individuals acquire value
oyher than the mean character value) or disruption (more
individuals acquire peripheral character value at both the
ends of the distribution curve).