Gage University College

Business Research Methods (MBA 611)

Shishay K. (PhD in Development Studies)

20 November 2021

SHISHAY.K (PHD) 1
 Evaluation
 Individual assignment (10%)
Group assignment (20%)
Participation and attendance (10%)
Mid exam (20%)
Final Exam (40%)

SHISHAY.K (PHD) 2
Chapter one: Introduction business research methods
What is a Research?
Its origins lies in the Greek philosophers, Plato and Aristotle
 who developed ways of conceptualizing and categorizing knowledge, truth
and human experience during the fourth century BC.
The search for truth
Research is a structured inquiry that utilizes acceptable scientific methodology
to solve problems and creates new knowledge that is generally applicable.
research is a process for collecting, analyzing and interpreting information to
answer questions.
is a movement from the unknown to the known
Nunan (1992:3): gives more concrete definition: “research is a systematic
process of enquiry consisting of 3 elements: … (1) a question, problem or
hypothesis (2) data (3) analysis and interpretation of data”.

SHISHAY.K (PHD) 3
CONT’.

 Research is a careful and detailed study of a particular problem or

concern, using scientific methods

 In the first sense, the outcome of research is the establishment,

publicizing, or utilization of something that somebody – not the
researcher or the person commissioning it – already knows.

 In the second sense, the outcome is knowledge nobody had before. This
is the general aim of academic research.

SHISHAY.K (PHD) 4
 CONT’.

What is a business research?

Business researchers systematically collect, compile, analyze and
interpret data to provide quality information based on which a decision
maker will be able to a decision in an optimum manner

Conducted to deal with a problem in a scientific, systematic and

interlinked exercise, which requires sound knowledge and experience

 As a systematic enquires that provides information to guide

managerial decision
What makes business research is deviate from pure academic discipline
like Biology?
SHISHAY.K (PHD) 5
OBJECTIVES OF RESEARCH
 Exploratory: Exploratory research is the first research to be conducted around a
problem that has not yet been clearly defined.

Exploration research therefore aims to gain a better understanding of the exact nature
of the problem and not to provide a conclusive answer to the problem itself. This
enables us to conduct more in-depth research later on.

Explore the unknown and unlock new possibilities (exploratory)

To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular individual, situation or a group
(descriptive research studies);
To determine the frequency with which something occurs (diagnostic research
studies);

 To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between variables (hypothesis-testing

research studies/explanatory research)

SHISHAY.K (PHD) 6
MOTIVATION IN RESEARCH
What triggers people to do a research?
The possible motives for doing research may be either one or more of the following
a) Desire to get a research degree along with its consequential benefits
b) Desire to face the challenge in solving the unsolved problems, i.e., concern over
practical problems initiates research;
c) Desire to get intellectual joy of doing some creative work
d) Desire to be of service to society
e) Desire to get respectability.

However, this is not an exhaustive list of factors motivating people to undertake

research studies. Many more factors such as directives of government, employment
conditions, curiosity about new things, desire to understand causal relationships, social
thinking and awakening, and the like may as well motivate (or at times compel) people
to perform research operations.

SHISHAY.K (PHD) 7
Types of research
Basic research
Is not related to a specific problem and its findings can not be immediately applied
Also known as pure research, is an original investigation into the reasons behind a
process, phenomenon or particular event
It focuses on generating knowledge around existing basic principles
‘non-commercial research’ because it does not focus on solving practical problems, and has
no immediate benefit or ways it can be applied.
Not have direct applications, it usually provides new insights that can later be used in applied
research.
Applied research
Directly addresses the problem at hand. Could be conducted by firm, agency or individuals
facing a problem
Applied research investigates well-known theories and principles in order to enhance
knowledge around a practical aim.
Applied research focuses on solving real-life problems by deriving knowledge which has an
immediate application.
Individual assignment one: what is the difference between quantitative and qualitative
research? (10%) not more than one page including your name. SHISHAY.K (PHD) 8
Research Methods Vs Research Methodology
Research methods refer to all those methods/techniques that are used for conduction
of a research
Research methods can be put into the following three groups:
1. Methods which are concerned with the collection of data
2. Statistical techniques which are used for establishing relationships between the data
3. Methods which are used to evaluate the accuracy of the results obtained

SHISHAY.K (PHD) 9
Research Methodology
study the various steps that are generally adopted by a researcher in studying his
research problems systematically, along with the logic, assumptions, justification, and
rationale behind them
 The strategy one chooses to answer research questions
 Justification for using a particular research method
 Is a way to systematically solve the research problem.
To prove the credibility, validity, and reliability of a chosen research method
Research method is a part of Research methodology

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 Quality of good research

Should focus on priority problems

Systematic
It emphasizes that a researcher should employ a structured procedure.
Logical
Without manipulating ideas logically, the scientific researcher cannot make much
progress in any investigation.
Reductive
the findings of one researcher should be made available to other researchers to prevent
them from repeating the same research.
Replicable
There should be scope to confirm the findings of previous research in a new
environment and different settings with a new group of subjects or at a different point
in time.
Generative
This is one of the valuable characteristics of research because answering one question
leads to generating many other new questions.

SHISHAY.K (PHD) 11
CONT’.
Action-oriented
It should be aimed at reaching a solution leading to the implementation of its findings
Multidisciplinary approach
research approaches from more than one discipline are needed.
Participatory
 Involving all parties concerned (from policymakers down to community members) at
all stages of the study.

Relatively simple, timely, and time-bound, employing a comparatively simple

design.

Cost-effective

The results of the research should be presented in formats most useful for
administrators, decision-makers, business managers, or the community

SHISHAY.K (PHD) 12
 Problems encountered by researchers.
I. Lack of scientific training in the methodology of research emanated from lack of
competent researcher
II. Copying of data ( Plagiarism). This is a crime and should not be promoted
III. Manipulation of data
IV. Lack of availability or access to literature needed
V. outlook of the researcher/research student
VI. Unavailability of permission to do research in specific centers.
• Hospitals and business establishments usually don’t allow third party inside to conduct
research.
•This may be due to security reasons or may be due to lack of confidence in keeping the
confidentiality of the data or names.
•No establishments will agree a third person to get in and find out the problems within
and it being gets published.
•Some organizations charge heavy fee or donation (whatever it may be)from students to
allow doing research within.
SHISHAY.K (PHD) 13
Cont’.

VII. Research
 a mere formality to fulfill course requirement Yes,
 of course research is a part of curriculum. But most of the students find it as a mere
formality to fulfill their course requirement. They just want to finish off the study.
VIII.Publishing may be expensive
IX. Lack of availability of sponsors
 Hesitation to contact sponsors
Not able to convince the sponsors
Lack of confidence of sponsors over the researcher

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Choosing a research topic and developing research proposal
Organization of a research paper
Research proposal
Title
Introduction: Background of the study, statement of
the problem, objectives, research questions,
significance of the research, scope
Literature review: concepts and definition of terms,
Theoretical foundation of the study
Empirical studies, conceptual framework
Research methodologies: demographics, research
approach, research philosophy, physical description of
the study area, sampling techniques and sample size
determination, tools and techniques of data collection,
techniques of data analysis, reliability, validity and
ethical considerations,
 work plan and budget
 
 References and appendix
Research report/paper
Title
Abstract: keywords
Introduction: Background of the study, statement of
the problem, objectives, research questions,
significance of the research, scope, limitation,
organization of the paper/research
Literature review: concepts and definition of terms,
Theoretical foundation of the study
Empirical studies, conceptual framework
Research methodologies: demographics, research
approach, research philosophy, physical description of
the study area, sampling techniques and sample size
determination, tools and techniques of data collection,
techniques of data analysis, reliability, validity and
ethical considerations.
Result and discussion
Conclusion and recommendation
References and appendix
SHISHAY.K (PHD) 15
 Choosing a research topic and developing research proposal

Business research involve both Theoretical or concept and purely practical questions
 For example(practical) – How does the product range compare in terms of
contribution to profit? –
Which method of training has produced more output- coaching or a group training
course?
 Example (theoretical) – What are the most effective ways of introducing a new
employee to the organization?
When choosing an area of research we start either
deductive or inductive
Modes of knowledge
Gibson et al (1994) provided two modes of knowledge that is created through business
research; – “Mode 1 knowledge” is a knowledge created by an academics for an
academic purpose to further and add to what is known- it has to do with basic research
e.g. the concept of economies of scale
“Mode 2 knowledge” is practical applied knowledge and comes from collaborating with
practitioners or policy makers SHISHAY.K (PHD) 16
Cont.’

Mode 3 knowledge” as suggested by Huff & Huff (2001) is a knowledge that is neither
produced specifically for academic purpose nor for direct application to practical need
but for understanding the bigger picture in relation to society’s survival and the
common goods.

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Choosing a research title and characteristics of a good title

To conduct a research there should be interest of knowledge or a problem to address

Think of the who, what, when, where and why questions:
WHY did you choose the topic?  What interests you about it?  Do you have an opinion
about the issues involved?
WHO are the information providers on this topic?  Who might publish information
about it?  Who is affected by the topic?  Do you know of organizations or institutions
affiliated with the topic?
WHAT are the major questions for this topic?  Is there a debate about the topic?  Are
there a range of issues and viewpoints to consider?
WHERE is your topic important: at the local, national or international level?  Are there
specific places affected by the topic?
WHEN is/was your topic important?  Is it a current event or an historical issue?  Do
you want to compare your topic by time periods?

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Cont’.
Should be short and informative
Should not contain abbreviation
Should avoid using slang or jargon words
Most of the time the title should be less than 15 words
Include the name(s) and address(es) of all authors, and date submitted
Avoid using interrogative sentences

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 Characteristics of good research title

It should predict the content of the research paper.

It should be interesting to the reader.
It should reflect the tone of the writing.
It should contain important keywords that will make it easier to be located during a
keyword search.

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Abstract
Write your summary after the rest of the paper is completed.
Use complete sentences and do not sacrifice readability for brevity.
Keep it concise by wording sentences so that they serve more than one
purpose.
Summarize the study, including the following elements in any abstract.
Try to keep the first two items to no more than one sentence each.
 Purpose of the study - hypothesis, overall question, objective
 Brief description of the methodology
 Results, including specific data - if the results are quantitative in nature, report
quantitative data; results of any statistical analysis should be reported
 important conclusions or recommendations that follow from the research

SHISHAY.K (PHD) 21
Cont’.

Single paragraph, and concise

As a summary of work done, it is always written in past tense
An abstract should stand on its own, and not refer to any other part of the paper such
as a figure or table
Focus on summarizing results - limit background information to a sentence or two, if
absolutely necessary
What you report in an abstract must be consistent with what you reported in the paper
Correct spelling, clarity of sentences and phrases, and proper reporting of quantities
(proper units, significant figures) are just as important in an abstract as they are
anywhere else

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 Introduction of a research
Background
should not exceed two pages
 the general intent is to acquaint the reader with the rationale behind the work, with
the intention of defending it.
It places your work in a theoretical context, and enables the reader to understand and
appreciate your objectives.
Separate major points using paragraphs.
Describe the importance (significance) of the study - why was this worth doing in the
first place? Provide a broad context.
What are its advantages? You might comment on its suitability from a theoretical
point of view as well as indicate practical reasons for using it.
Present background information only as needed in order to support a position. The
reader does not want to read everything you know about a subject.
As always, pay attention to spelling, clarity and appropriateness of sentences and
phrases.
Use past tense except when referring to established facts.

SHISHAY.K (PHD) 23
 Statement of the problem
State your specific hypotheses or objectives, and describe the reasoning that led you
to select them.
Very briefly describe the study design and how it accomplished the stated objectives.
A concise description of the nature of the problem and of the size, distribution and
severity of the problem
An analysis of the major factors that may influence the problem and a discussion
of why certain factors need more investigation if the problem is to be fully understood
A brief description of any solutions to the problem that have been tried in the past,
how well they have worked, and why further research is needed
A description of the type of information expected to result from the project and how
this information will be used to help solve the problem
A short list of definitions of crucial concepts used in the statement of the problem.
A problem statement should:
 be precise and concise without missing essential points
 Summarize information about the problem

Therefore, before any writing is attempted, an outline listing the major points to be
covered has to be prepared so that the section is well organized
SHISHAY.K (PHD) 24
Research objectives
A research objective is a statement that clearly depicts the goal to be
achieved by the research.
Why should research objectives be developed?
Help you to:
 Focus the study (narrowing it down to essentials);
 Avoid the collection of data not strictly necessary for understanding
and solving the problem (to establish the limits of the study)
Organize the study in clearly defined parts or phases.

Properly formulated, specific objectives facilitate the development of

the research methodology and help to orient the collection, analysis,
interpretation and utilization of data

SHISHAY.K (PHD) 25
Cont’.
When should the objectives of a research project be prepared?
 after the statement of the problem is developed and before the methodology for the
study is planned because:

 It follow from the statement of the problem and show the precise goal of the study,
 help guide the development of the research methodology
 orient the collection, analysis and interpretation of data
What are the characteristics of good objectives?
 Logical and coherent
 Feasible
 Realistic, considering local condition
 Defined in operational terms that can be measured
 Phrased to clearly meet the purpose of the study

SHISHAY.K (PHD) 26
Cont’.
How should objectives be stated?
Using “action verbs” that are specific enough
to be measured:
 Examples: To determine …, To compare…, To verify…, To
calculate…, To describe…, etc.
Do not use vague non-action verbs such as:
To appreciate … To understand… To believe

SHISHAY.K (PHD) 27
Cont’.
Research objectives can be stated as:
 Questions:“The objectives of this study are to answer the following
questions …”
 Positive sentence: “The objectives of this study are to determine …”
 Hypothesis: “The objective of this study is to verify the following
hypothesis...”
 The format chosen depends on the type of study that will be undertaken
 For a descriptive or exploratory study, objectives are stated in the form of questions or
positive sentences
 For studies that can be used to make predictions concerning what is being studied, then
hypotheses may be proposed
Types of Research Objectives
General and Specific
General
 Identifies in general terms what is to be accomplished and why
Specific
 Details the specific aims of the research by breaking down what is to be
accomplished into smaller logical components SHISHAY.K (PHD) 28
Cont’.

Examples of General and specific objectives

The Study: Factors influencing utilization of maternal health care services in Adama
Town
 General objective: To assess factors influencing utilization of maternal healthcare
services in Adama Town
 Specific Objectives:
 To assess the knowledge, attitude and practice of pregnant women regarding
antenatal care, and TT vaccination,
 To identify factors that influence women’s attendance at antenatal care (ANC) and
institutional delivery care services,
 To identify the sources of delivery service and mothers’ preference of place of
delivery,
 To determine coverage with ANC and TT vaccination among mothers.

SHISHAY.K (PHD) 29
Research questions/hypothesis

A research question is typically a concise, focused and debatable question that will
provide a clear path for research. A hypothesis is a formal statement designed to predict
the relationship between two or more variables
For example,
Objective: To assess the effect of images spectacle characteristics for species
classification using high resolution images and applying OBIA
Research question: What is the difference in segmentation using GeoEye and
world view images?
Hypothesis: H1: There is difference in segmentation accuracy between GeoEye
and worldview images.
 Research hypothesis is dominantly used in natural sciences whereas research
questions used in social sciences


SHISHAY.K (PHD) 30
Cont’.
Type I error: is the mistaken rejection of an actually true null hypothesis (also known
as a "false positive" finding or conclusion; example: "an innocent person is convicted")
Type II error: is the mistaken acceptance of an actually false null hypothesis (also
known as a "false negative" finding or conclusion; example: "a guilty person is not
convicted")
A type I error (false-positive) occurs if an investigator rejects a null hypothesis that is
actually true in the population;
a type II error (false-negative) occurs if the investigator fails to reject a null hypothesis
that is actually false in the population.

SHISHAY.K (PHD) 31
Literature Review
An integral part of the research process
A comprehensive literature review helps to answer the
following questions:
 What are the set (or sub-set) of knowledge to which the research relates
to most directly?
 What are the major 'trends' or issues in that body of knowledge that
have been most significant in shaping the research
 To which point in the theoretical agenda of that body of knowledge
does the research relate to most directly?
 What are the major controversies that are important for the research?

SHISHAY.K (PHD) 32
Why literature review?
A properly executed critical review of the literature lays a sound foundation for the
study from which the rationale, the statement of the problem, the hypotheses or
research questions, and the design of the research emerge
A 'long‘, complete and thoughtful literature review helps the researcher to convey the
message
A literature review should be guided by the theoretical agenda of the 'research
rationale
The mere length of a review without relevance can bury the essence of the research
proposal itself.
Avoid going on unchecked with page after page of citations that are unrelated to the
specific topic at hand
The result of the literature review should be:
 A reaffirmation of the importance of the theoretical rationale of the research in light
of the work of others
 An emphasis on the contribution which the research is likely to make to the ongoing
task of building and improving theory in a given area of knowledge.

SHISHAY.K (PHD) 33
Resources to consult during literature review

Card catalogues of books in libraries

Indexes such as INDEX MEDICUS, INTERNATIONAL NURSING INDEX etc. that
identify journal articles by subject, author and title
Abstracts of books and articles
Computer-based literature searches such as MEDLINE, PUBMED
Bibliographies such as those found at the end of books, articles, theses, etc.
Books, articles, newspapers, mimeographed reports, etc.
Statistics collected at the national, provincial and/or departmental levels.
Studies conducted in the country or region
Responses to enquiries on ongoing research
Theoretical works related to the topic
Works on methodology and descriptions of methodologies used in other studies
Opinions, beliefs, points-of-view.
Anecdote, clinical observations, reports of incidents, etc
SHISHAY.K (PHD) 34
Methods of citation in preparing literature review

Information on an index card should be organized in such a way that you can easily
find all the data you will need for your report:
 For an article the following information should be noted:
 Author(s)’ Surname followed by initials, year. Title of article. Name of Journal.
Volume, (number): page numbers of article.
 Example: Louria DB. (1996). Emerging- and re-emerging infections: The societal
variables. International Journal of Infectious Disease. 1(2):59-62.
 For a book the following information should be noted:
 Author(s)’ Surname followed by initials.(year) Title of book. Place: Publisher,
Edition
 Example:Abramson JH. (1990). Survey methods in community medicine.
Edinburgh: Churchill Livingstone, 4th ed.
 For a chapter in a book, the reference can include:
 Author(s) of chapter (Surname(s) followed by initials). Chapter title. In: Editor(s) of
book, (Surname(s) followed by initials). (eds).(year). Title of book. Place: Publisher,
Page numbers of chapter.
 Example: Hailemariam A., Mekbib T. and Fantahun M. Family Planning in
Ethiopia. In: Berhane, Y., Hailemariam, D and Kloos H (eds.) (2006). Epidemiology
and Ecology of Health and Diseases in Ethiopia. Shama Books, 267-285.

SHISHAY.K (PHD) 35
In text citation
At the beginning of the sentence
Gwan and Kimengsi (2020) confirm that urban expansion forces farmers to practice
agricultural intensification and adopt high-value crops as coping strategies in Bamenda
City, Cameroon.
At the end of the sentence
Despite the wide acceptance of Sen’s thinking, many controversies on the food security
issue have remained in academic and policy circles (Sijm, 1997).
Morethan two authors, use et al
urban expansion creates a favorable condition for the development of peri-urban agriculture
to use lands which are not effectively used for constructions (Feola et al., 2020).
Direct quote
“when all people, at all times, have physical and economic access to sufficient, safe and
nutritious food to meet their dietary needs and food preferences for an active and healthy
life”(FAO, 1996, p. 2).
Loss of assets or involuntary restriction of access to assets including national parks,
protected areas, or of national resources; or loss of income sources or means of
livelihood as a result of projects, whether or not the affected persons are required to
move. (AFDB, 2003, p. 19) SHISHAY.K (PHD) 36
Research methodology
Description of the study area
 describing the study area its location, number of kebeles, woredas, etc.
Agroecology of the area and metrological data
Demographic characteristics
 Unit of analysis is HH
Population of the study area in terms of sex
Socioeconomic characteristics
 means of income
Types of crops grown
Livestock population
Research design
Research design is not related to any particular method of collecting data or any
particular type of data. Any research design can, in principle, use any type of data
collection method and can use either quantitative or qualitative data. Research design
refers to the structure of an enquiry: it is a logical matter rather than a logistical one.
SHISHAY.K (PHD) 37
Cont’.
Research designs are plans and the procedures for research that span the decisions
from broad assumptions to detailed methods of data collection and analysis. This plan
involves several decisions
Research designs can be broadly categorized into three:
1. Exploratory
2. Descriptive
3. Experimental

SHISHAY.K (PHD) 38
Sampling techniques and sample size determinations

What is a sample?
A sample is a finite part of a statistical population whose properties are studied to gain
information about the whole
a set of respondents (people) selected from a larger population for the purpose of
conducting a survey.
A population is a group of individual’s persons, objects, or items from which samples
are taken for measurement, for example, a population of currently married women,
adolescents
What is sampling?
oSampling is the act, process, or technique of selecting a suitable sample, or a
representative part of a population for the purpose of determining parameters or
characteristics of the whole population.
oIt allows us to draw conclusions about populations from samples by using
inferential statistics.
 Inferential statistics enables us to determine a population’s characteristics by
directly observing only a portion (or sample) of the population.
SHISHAY.K (PHD) 39
Purpose of sampling
There would be no need for statistical theory if a census rather than a
sample was always used to obtain information about a population
A sample rather than a complete enumeration (a census) of the
population is taken for many reasons.
 Economy – fewer resources
 Timeliness - needed information can be obtained quickly (disease
break out)
 The large size of many populations
 Inaccessibility of some of the population
 People in prison, wild animals in a forest
 Destructiveness of the observation - light bulbs
 Accuracy
personnel of higher quality can be used
Greater supervision of fieldwork, data entry and
processing can be done SHISHAY.K (PHD) 40
Sampling error
Sampling error comprises of the difference between the sample and the population that
is due solely to the particular units that happen to have been selected.
Two types of sampling errors
 Those due to chance
The error that occurs just because of bad luck. This may result in untypical choices.
Unusual units in a population do exist and there is always a possibility that an
abnormally large number of them will be chosen.
 Those due to sampling bias
Sampling bias is a tendency to favor the selection of units that have particular
characteristics.
It is usually the result of a poor sampling plan. The most notable is the bias of non-
response when for some reason some units have no chance of appearing in the sample.

SHISHAY.K (PHD) 41
Target population

A target population refers to all the members of a real or hypothetical set of

people, events, or objects to which we wish to generalize the results of our research
Sampling Techniques
1. Probability , and
2. non-probability sampling
Sampling from complete lists of elements/individuals in population
sampling from individuals/elements who/that go somewhere or do something that
enables them to be sampled
multi-stage sampling

SHISHAY.K (PHD) 42
Types of sampling

There are three primary kinds of samples

 Convenient sample
 When the more convenient elementary units are chosen from a population for
observation.
 Judgment sample
 A judgment sample is obtained according to the discretion of someone who is
familiar with the relevant characteristics of the population.
 Random sample/probability sample
 The most important type of sample.
 allows a known probability that each elementary unit will be chosen.
 It is sometimes referred to as a probability sample.
 Simple random sampling
 Systematic sampling
 Stratified sampling
 Cluster sampling
SHISHAY.K (PHD) 43
Cont’.
A simple random sample
 obtained by choosing elementary units in such a way that each unit in the population has an equal chance of
being selected.
 free from sampling bias.
 Shortcomings :
 Using a random number table to choose the elementary units can be cumbersome.

A systematic random sample

 obtained by selecting one unit on a random basis and choosing additional elementary units at evenly spaced
intervals until the desired number of units is obtained.  

A stratified sample
 obtained by independently selecting a separate simple random sample from each population stratum.
A cluster sample
 obtained by selecting clusters from the population on the basis of simple random
sampling.
 The sample comprises a census of each random cluster selected
 Used when the population of interest is spread over a large geographic area
 Divide the area into smaller units called clusters and choose at random a number of
clusters to concentrate your efforts. Finally, you would extensively sample each cluster
 If we choose a random sample from each of the chosen clusters, then we would be
combining simple random sampling with cluster sampling.
SHISHAY.K (PHD) 44
Sample size determination
STRATEGIES FOR DETERMINING SAMPLE SIZE
using a census for small populations (e.g., 200 or less).
imitating a sample size of similar studies,
 using published tables, and
applying formulas to calculate a sample size
In order to determine the sample size, the following three factors must be
known:
 Desired level of confidence which determines the critical value Z
 The accepted sampling error E
 The population standard deviation σ
 If σ, the population standard deviation is not know, its estimate
s, the sample standard deviation from previous or similar
studies can be used.

SHISHAY.K (PHD) 45
Tools and techniques of data collection
Two types of data
1. Primary data
2. Secondary data
Primary data
Data that has been generated by the researcher himself/herself, surveys, interviews,
experiments, specially designed for understanding and solving the research problem at
hand.
Major sources of primary data are diaries of eyewitness, taperecords, films, letters and
autobiographies
Secondary data
Using existing data generated by large government Institutions, healthcare facilities
etc. as part of organizational record keeping. The data is then extracted from more
varied data files. 
data collected by someone else earlier.
Government publications, websites, books, journal articles, internal records etc.
SHISHAY.K (PHD) 46
Tools of primary data collection
Generated using , questionnaire, interview, experiment, and observation
Survey questionnaire
Good survey questions lead to good data.
Preparation of questionnaire can be tedious, involving several drafts and more than one
pretests
Use plain words
1. Face-to-face interviews
2. Self-administered questionnaires
3. Telephone interviews

SHISHAY.K (PHD) 47
Face-to-face interviews
Advantages:
•Can be used with respondents who wouldn’t be able to provide information in another
format – bedridden, illiterate, etc.
•Researcher can elicit more in-depth response or fill in information if participant doesn’t
understand the question
•Different data collection techniques – open-ended questions, visual aids, etc.
•Certainty about who answered the questions

Disadvantages:
Intrusive and reactive
Cost time and money
Difficult to locate respondents for callbacks

SHISHAY.K (PHD) 48
Self administered questionnaires

Advantages:
Post Office locates participants
Everybody gets the same questions
Researcher can ask more complex questions
No response effect (willing to divulge more info w/o face-to-face contact; less likely
to try to impress interviewer
Can be computer-based
Disadvantages:
No control over participant interpretation
Low response rates
Uncertainty about who actually filled out the questionnaire
Useless with non-literate, illiterate populations (same problem with English language
sampling) or hard-to-reach populations
SHISHAY.K (PHD) 49
Telephone interviews
Advantages:
Combo of face-to-face personal quality with impersonal self-administered
questionnaires
Inexpensive and convenient (maybe)
Safe for interviewers

Disadvantages:
Changing demographics – more cell phones?
 May miss certain population segments
Survey must be short or people will hang up
“No Call Lists” presenting increasing challenge

SHISHAY.K (PHD) 50
Advantage of questionnaire
Cost savings:
Compared with a face-to-face questionnaire delivered on site, over the phone, or by post, there are no labor,
paper, printing, phone or postage expenses to worry about with the online questionnaire, making it a much
more cost-efficient approach.
Reach people quickly:
With a wide choice of mediums with which to distribute your questionnaire, from emailing and texting it, to
putting a link to it on your website, or making it downloadable via a QR code, you can reach out and gain
feedback quickly from your respondents.
Scalability: allow you to gather information from a large audience.
Thanks to the internet, it’s quick and simple to ramp up the audience for your online questionnaire and
literally target them anywhere in the world. All you need to do is send them a link to your questionnaire,
which could be executed through an automated email in a customer onboarding or lead nurturing campaign.

Respondent anonymity:
Compared with other approaches including face-to-face and over the telephone questioning, the ability to
provide anonymity with an online questionnaire is a significant benefit, particularly when you are looking
to survey respondents on sensitive issues.
When anonymity is provided it immediately puts respondents at ease and encourages them to answer
truthfully, which is great when you’re trying to get a more honest and accurate picture of your subject of
investigation, such as when you’re surveying employees about your company culture.
Easy Analysis and visualization,. it is quantitative easily to perform
SO EASY TO MANMUPULATESHISHAY.K (PHD) 51
Cont’.
Flexibility for respondents over where and when to complete their questionnaire:
The great thing about the online questionnaire, is that respondents can choose when
and where they will complete your questionnaire. With more time to fill-in your survey
and even the flexibility to start it and then come back to it at another time to finish it
off, can help boost your overall response rates.
Data accuracy:
While methods such as face-to-face and over the telephone questionnaires require the
interviewer to process respondent answers, with the online questionnaire answers are
automatically inserted into spreadsheets, databases, or other software packages
reducing the risk of human error and enabling automatic validation of the data.
Disadvantage
Differences in understanding and interpretation
Unanswered questions
Some questions can be difficult to analyze
Difficulty in conveying feelings and emotions
Accessibility issues
SHISHAY.K (PHD) 52
Types of questionnaires

open-ended or closed-ended
Closed ended questions: allow only answers which fit into categories that have been
established in advance by the researcher.
Open-ended: unrestricted type of questionnaire, free response in the respondent's own
words; leave the respondent to decide the wording and the length of the answer and the
kind of matters to be raised in the answer.
Advantages of closed- ended questions
The answers are standards, and can be compared from person to person.
The answers are much easier to code and analyze
They are easier for a respondent to answer as he or she merely choose a category
Disadvantages of closed-ended questions
Guesses or randomly answers if a respondent does not know the answer or has no
opinion
There is no opportunity for the respondent to clarify or qualify his or her answer
Differences in interpretation of what was meant by the question may go undetected
SHISHAY.K (PHD) 53
Cont’.
Variations in answers among the different respondents may be eliminated artificially by forced- choice
responses
A likelihood of a clerical error as the respondent circles
The advantages of open-ended questions
oThey can be used when not all of the possible answer categories are known and to see what the respondent
views as appropriate answer categories
oTo allow the respondent to answer adequately, in all detail he or she likes, and to clarify and qualify his or her
answer
oThey can be used when there are too many potential answer categories to list on the questionnaire – you can not
list too many questions in a given questionnaire
oThey allow the respondent to have more opportunity for creativity or self expression
oDisadvantages of open-ended questions

The possibility of collecting worthless and irrelevant information

Data are often not standardized from person to person, making comparison or statistical analysis difficult

 Coding is often very difficult and subjective

 Require a lot of time for analysis

May require more of the respondent's time and effort, and may engender a high refusal rate /reduce
respondents’ willingness to take part in the research.

Possibly discouraging some respondents who do not wish to answer a lengthy questionnaire
SHISHAY.K (PHD) 54
Dos and don’ts
make each question brief and the wording clear and concise with minimal use of
jargon
keep the length of the questionnaire to a minimum
Make all definitions, assumptions, and qualifiers clearly understood
Avoid making significant memory demands
Make the questions simple to answer
Keep it interesting – don’t make it monotonous, do have a logical sequence to the
question
Avoid biased, loaded, leading, or sensitive questions. Example: ‘are you a heavy
smoker?’ Instead use ranges:. Please indicate your smoking habit: less than 10
cigarettes a day, between 10 and 20, over 20
Leading: what are your views on the level of VAT in Ethiopia?
Start with simple questions such as gender, leaving more complicated questions to be
answered late in the questionnaire.
 Avoid asking personal questions
Avoid asking the same questions in a different fashion SHISHAY.K (PHD) 55
Important points to note

I. Introductory statement of a Questionnaire

oState the purpose of the study and its significance;
oExplain who the data collector is, the basis of its authority/the sponsor under whose
auspices is the research being undertaken?
oWhy it is conducting the study;
oTell how and why the respondents were selected;
oExplain why their answers are important;
oTell how to complete the format and list the person to call if help is needed to complete
the form;
oProvide assurance of confidentiality and anonymity when appropriate;
o Explain how the data will be used;
oExplain who will have access to the information; and
oPresent the response efforts as a favor and thank the respondents for their cooperation.

SHISHAY.K (PHD) 56
Cont’.
II. Format of the questionnaire }
margins, spacing, font, etc.
Proofread your questionnaire carefully for grammar and spelling errors
conduct a pilot survey on a small sample so that to test the reliability and validity of
your measure.

SHISHAY.K (PHD) 57
Interviews

An interview is a process of interaction in which the interviewee gives the needed

information verbally in a face-to-face situation or through telephone (koal 1996).
Involves presentation of oral-verbal stimuli and reply in terms of oral-  verbal
responses.
Answers are recorded by: – Writing the response – Tape recording or – A combination
of writing and tape recording
Interview can be conducted through: – personal / face-to-face (individually or in
group) or – telephone  – through internet/online Purpose of interview
It is the principal means of collecting information about what an interviewee: • Knows
(i.e., getting knowledge or information)
likes or dislikes (i.e., values & preferences) and
Thinks (i.e., attitudes and beliefs) • It may be used to test hypotheses or to suggest
new or It could be used in conjunction with other methods in a research undertaking

SHISHAY.K (PHD) 58
Types of interview

structured , unstructured and semi-structured

A) Structured interview
Set of predetermined questions and of highly standardized recording technique (audio or
digital recorders)
The same types of questions are presented in the same order to each interviewee
The interviewer has no freedom to rephrase or change the order of questions to be presented
quite often used in the case of descriptive studies
B. Unstructured interview •
The interviewer has a general plan of inquiry but not a specific set of questions that must be
asked in particular words and in a particular order
characterized by flexibility • The interviewer is largely free to arrange, rephrase, modify, and
add some new questions
Very important for exploratory research studies
C. Semi-structured interview
 Shares the nature of both structured and unstructured interview
SHISHAY.K (PHD) 59
Cont’.
Advantages
More and in-depth information can be obtained
There is greater flexibility
Personal information can be obtained easily
High response rate
 The language of the interview can be adapted to the ability the person interviewed
Disadvantages
Expensive including Cost of selecting, training and supervising the field staff
Bias of interviewer and the respondent - presence of the interviewer on the spot may
over-stimulate the respondent - may give imaginary information
Important officials or executives may not be easily approachable
More-time-consuming, when calling the respondents

SHISHAY.K (PHD) 60
Observation

Observation is one of the most important methods of data collection.

It entails being present in a situation and making a record of one’s impressions of
what takes place. In observation the primary research instrument is the self,
consciously gathering sensory data through sight, hearing, taste, smell and touch. By
various means of record-keeping, traces of those impressions are stored for careful
scrutiny and analysis after the event.
Observational data are sensitive to contexts and demonstrate strong ecological validity
observing what is occurring in some real - life situation , without asking questions of
respondents
It is valuable instrument in a wide range of research studies. • Examples: Cultural
study, traffic counts, direction of traffic flows Planning and execution of observation
Selecting an appropriate group of subjects to observe
Identifying the specific activities or units of behavior to be observed and focusing
attention on same at the time of implementation

SHISHAY.K (PHD) 61
Cont’.

Things to be observed (examples)

and its organization)
 the physical setting (e.g. the physical environment

 the human setting (e.g. the organization of people, the characteristics

and make up of the groups or individuals being observed, for instance,
gender, class)
 the interactional setting (e.g. the interactions that are taking place,
formal, informal, planned, unplanned, verbal, non-verbal etc.)
 the programme setting (e.g. the resources and their organization).

SHISHAY.K (PHD) 62
Cont’.

Flick (1998: 137) suggests that observation has to be considered along

five dimensions:
 structured, systematic and quantitative observation versus unstructured and
unsystematic and qualitative observation
 participant observation versus non-participant observation
 overt versus covert observation
 observation in natural settings versus observation in unnatural, artificial
settings (e.g. a ‘laboratory’ or contrived situation)
 self-observation versus observation of others.

SHISHAY.K (PHD) 63
Cont’.

Classification of observation methods

A) Direct versus Indirect observation
Direct observation
The observer is physically present and personally monitors what takes place • Very flexible -
the observer can react to events • The observer is free to shift places, change the focus of
observation, or concentrate on unexpected events
weakness
The observers' perception may become overloaded as events move quickly; they must later
try to reconstruct what they are not be able to record
 Observer fatigue, boredom, and distracting events can reduce the accuracy and completeness.
Indirect observation
The recording is done by mechanical/adjusted instruments
Example: a special camera that takes one frame every second is mounted in a department of a
large store to study customer and employee movement
Less flexible but much less biasing, less unpredictable or erratic in accuracy
 The permanent record can be analyzed to include any different aspects of an event
SHISHAY.K (PHD) 64
Cont’.
B. ) Disguised (Covert) Vs undisguised (overt) observation
The role of the observers should be disguised in situations where people behave
differently if they know they were being observed
 Often technical means are used such as one-way mirrors, hidden cameras, or
microphones
Reduce the risk of observer bias but bring up a question of ethics
Hidden observation is a form of intelligence work
A modified approach - the presence of the observer is not concealed, but the observer
´s real purpose and subject of interest are hidden
c) Participant Vs non-participant observation
Participant observation: The observer becomes one of the groups under observation
Non-participant observation: Observer takes position where his presence is not
disturbing the group.

SHISHAY.K (PHD) 65
Cont’.

d) Structured Vs. unstructured observation

o Structured observation is systematic and has a high level of predetermined steps
oObjective: To quantify behavior (your focus is to determine how often things happen rather
than why they happen. Ex: Time and motion study
o Unstructured observation: The observer has no definite ideas of the particular aspects that
need focus.
oObserving events that are happening may also be a part of the plan as in many qualitative
studies.
Observation: Recording and interpreting the observation
• the observer must take utmost care to minimize the influence of his biases, attitudes and
values on the observation report
Advantages:
• Useful in locating data about non-readers, young children, people with mental disorders, and
laboratory animals
• The data obtained through observation of events as they normally occur are generally more
reliable and free from respondent bias
. Disadvantages: • It is time consuming • It is costly to collect data. • The data may reflect
observers’ bias SHISHAY.K (PHD) 66
Focus group discussion

 A moderated discussion among eight to 12 participants

 A typical focus group lasts about two hours and covers a range of
topics that you decide on beforehand
 users' attitudes, beliefs, desires
 users' reactions to ideas or to prototypes

a special type of interview that offers opportunity to interview a number of people at

the same time.
The moderator uses group dynamics principles to focus or guide the group in an
exchange of ideas, feelings, and experiences on a clearly understood topic
Qualities of a moderator: (Kindness with firmness, Tolerance, Involvement,
understanding, Encouragement, Flexibility, Sensitivity / emotional response)

SHISHAY.K (PHD) 67
When are focus groups used?

Focus groups are used for several purposes:

 To formulate well-designed hypotheses or research questions, for a larger
scale research study
 To help researchers in developing questions for a larger scale survey –
focus groups can provide directions for how to word the questions so
that they will be understood
 To help interpret the results from a large scale survey, that is, to find out
the reasons as to why a certain percent had a specific attitude or behavior
 To study embarrassing or personal topics that people may feel more
comfortable talking about in a group rather than in an individual
interview
 To obtain a general understanding of how people talk about products or
issues that concern them, how they make decisions to act certain ways,
and their reasons for acting
 To obtain people’s reactions to ideas for new products, services or
programs at an early stage so that planners avoid serious mistakes
 To get impressions of potential communication messages (advertisements,
brochures, posters) and product packaging at an early stage to avoid
mistakes and to generate new ideas. SHISHAY.K (PHD) 68
How to conduct a focus group?
Select participants
Decide what you want to learn
Write a "script" for the moderator to follow
Hire a skilled moderator to facilitate the discussion so that everyone
participates and the group stays on track. (In the other techniques, you
need skilled observers and listeners.)
 Allow the moderator flexibility in using the script. The script usually gives the
moderator questions to ask and topics to cover
 The moderator may change the order of questions and topics to keep the discussion
flowing smooth
 The moderator has to be a good judge of time to decide when to encourage more
discussion on a topic and when to move on.
Tape the sessions and have one or more people take good notes.

SHISHAY.K (PHD) 69
Collection of secondary data
Secondary data means data that are already available i.e., the data  which have
already been collected and analyzed by someone else.
Secondary data may either be published data or unpublished data. • Usually published
data are available in: • various publications of the central, state or local governments;
Various publications of foreign governments or of international organizations; 
Technical and trade journals. • books, magazines and newspapers; • reports and
publications of various associations connected with business and industry, banks, stock
exchanges, etc.;
Reports prepared by research scholars, universities, economists, etc. in different
fields; and
public records and statistics, historical documents, and other  sources of published
information. • The sources of unpublished data are many; they may be found in diaries,
letters, unpublished biographies and autobiographies and also may be available with
scholars and research workers, trade associations, labor bureaus and other public/
private  individuals and organizations.
Researcher must be very careful in using secondary data. He must see that they
possess following characteristics: • Reliability of data • Suitability of data • Adequacy
of data SHISHAY.K (PHD) 70
Cont’.
From all this we can say that it is very risky to use the already available data
oThe already available data should be used by the researcher  only when he finds
them reliable, suitable and adequate. Strengths
oEnable researchers to study past events or issues
oUsually most secondary documents are readily available
oIt is more economical • Give an easy way of obtaining other peoples perception 
Limitations
oSome secondary sources may be unreliable and inaccurate
o Some sources could be confidential/secret/private
oSome documents may not be up to date and complete
oDocuments may be biased to some extent since they represent the views of the authors

SHISHAY.K (PHD) 71
Reliability, validity and ethics
Reliability
“concerns the extent to which an experiment, test, or any measuring yields the same result on repeated
trial” (Carmines & Zeller, 1979, p. 11).
It entails that the research be auditable i.e. readers should be able to get the same response following
the same method
But here shouldn’t forget the concepts of participant error, participant bias, observer error and bias
Validity
Validity shows how accurately a method measures what is planned to measure in the actual area
investigation (Ghauri & Gronhaug, 2005) or how accurate the measure is (Field, 2005).
–soundness/ dependability validity can be characterized in three ways
Face validity: Can a layman see the Reason method as a valid method of studying this question? E.g.
why do you want to know that?/ reason validity
Construct validity: Can the method measure what you think it measures? (distance from school vs
access to school) do examinations test knowledge? Is the measurement validity strong?
Internal validity: Refers to causality i.e. does factor X cause factor Y to happen? Does strong
motivation lead to effective team work? Other types of validity
External validity
refers to generalizability
Is it universally acceptable SHISHAY.K (PHD)
72
Research ethics
Applying research ethics is basic in any research to protect the dignity, rights and
welfare of the participants.
 consensus should be reached between researcher and the participants
The researcher guarantees their data is not transferred to third parties without their
willingness and an anonymous name was provided to individuals not interested to give
their name for security purposes.

SHISHAY.K (PHD) 73
Result and discussion

Result
The page length of this section is set by the amount and types of data to
be reported.
Continue to be concise, using figures and tables, if appropriate, to
present results most effectively.
General intent
 The purpose of a results section is to present and illustrate your findings.
 Make this section a completely objective report of the results, and save all
interpretation for the discussion.

SHISHAY.K (PHD) 74
Writing a results section

IMPORTANT:
 You must clearly distinguish material that would normally be included in a research
article from any raw data or other appendix material that would not be published.
 such material should not be submitted at all unless requested by the instructor.
Content
 Summarize your findings in text and illustrate them, if appropriate, with figures and
tables.
 In text, describe each of your results, pointing the reader to observations that are most
relevant.
 Provide a context, such as by describing the question that was addressed by making a
particular observation.
 Describe results of control experiments and include observations that are not
presented in a formal figure or table, if appropriate.
 Analyze your data, then prepare the analyzed (converted) data in the form of a figure
(graph), table, or in text form.

SHISHAY.K (PHD) 75
Writing a results section: what to avoid
Do not discuss or interpret your results, report background information, or attempt to
explain anything.
Never include raw data or intermediate calculations in a research paper.
Do not present the same data more than once.
Text should complement any figures or tables, not repeat the same information.
Do not confuse figures with tables - there is a difference.

SHISHAY.K (PHD) 76
Writing a results section: style

Use past tense when you refer to your results, and put everything in a logical order.
In text, refer to each figure as "figure 1," "figure 2," etc. ; number your tables as well
Place figures and tables, properly numbered, in order at the end of the report (clearly
distinguish them from any other material such as raw data, standard curves, etc.)
If you prefer, you may place your figures and tables appropriately within the text of
your results section.

Figures and tables

 Either place figures and tables within the text of the result, or include them in the back of the
report (following Literature Cited) - do one or the other
 If you place figures and tables at the end of the report, make sure they are clearly distinguished
from any attached appendix materials, such as raw data
 Regardless of placement, each figure must be numbered consecutively and complete with
caption (caption goes under the figure)
 Regardless of placement, each table must be titled, numbered consecutively and complete with
heading (title with description goes above the table)
 Each figure and table must be sufficiently complete that it could stand on its own, separate
from text

SHISHAY.K (PHD) 77
Writing the discussion section
General intent
The objective here is to provide an interpretation of your results and
support for all of your conclusions, using evidence from your results
section and generally accepted knowledge, if appropriate. The
significance of findings should be clearly described.
Interpret your data in the discussion in appropriate depth.
 This means that when you explain a phenomenon you must describe mechanisms that
may account for the observation.
 If your results differ from your expectations, explain why that may have happened.
 If your results agree, then describe the theory that the evidence supported.
 It is never appropriate to simply state that the data agreed with expectations, and let it
drop at that.

SHISHAY.K (PHD) 78
Writing the discussion section
Decide if each hypothesis is supported, rejected, or if you cannot make a decision
with confidence. Do not simply dismiss a study or part of a study as "inconclusive."
Draw what conclusions you can base upon the results that you have, and treat the
study as a finished work
You may suggest future directions, such as how the study might be modified to
accomplish another objective.
Explain all of your observations as much as possible, focusing on mechanisms.
Decide if the study adequately addressed the hypothesis, and whether or not it was
properly controlled.
Try to offer alternative explanations if reasonable alternatives exist.
One study will not answer an overall question, so keeping the big picture in mind,
where do you go next? The best studies open up new avenues of research. What
questions remain?
Recommendations for specific papers will provide additional suggestions.

SHISHAY.K (PHD) 79
Cont’.

When you refer to information, distinguish data generated by your own studies from
published information or from information obtained from other students (verb tense is
an important tool for accomplishing that purpose).
Refer to work done by specific individuals (including yourself) in past tense.
Refer to generally accepted facts and principles in present tense. For example, "Assefa
and Mekonen in 1997 study found that the risk of dying at infancy was higher for
higher order births.
The biggest mistake that students make in discussions is to present a superficial
interpretation that more or less re-states the results. It is necessary to suggest why
results came out as they did, focusing on the mechanisms behind the observations.

SHISHAY.K (PHD) 80
Conclusions and summary

A separate section outlining the main conclusions of the project is appropriate if

conclusions have not already been stated in the "Discussion" section. Directions for
future work are also suitably expressed here.
A lengthy report, or one in which the findings are complex, usually benefits from a
paragraph summarizing the main features of the report - the objectives, the findings,
and the conclusions.
The last paragraph of text in manuscripts prepared for publication is customarily
dedicated to acknowledgments. However, there is no rule about this, and research
reports or theses frequently place acknowledgments following the title page.

SHISHAY.K (PHD) 81
Literature cited/references

List all literature cited in your paper, in alphabetical order, by first author.
In a proper research paper, only primary literature is used (original research articles
authored by the original investigators).
Avoid citing a web site as a reference if possible - anyone can put just about anything
on a web site, and you have no way of knowing if it is truth or fiction.
If you are citing an on line journal, use the journal citation (name, volume, year, page
numbers).
Literature references should be collated at the end of the report and cited in one of the
formats described in referencing style guide or standard journals. Do not mix formats.
All references should be checked against the original literature.

SHISHAY.K (PHD) 82