Natural

selection and
Evolution
Chapter 19
The
Galapagos
Island
Darwin was fascinated in particular
by the land tortoises and marine
iguanas in the Galapagos.

Giant tortoises varied in predictable

ways from one island to another.

The shape of a tortoise’s shell could

be used to identify which island a
particular tortoise inhabited.
 • Charles Darwin proposed the theory of
Darwin's evolution by natural selection
Theory of • He came up with this theory as a result of
observations from a round-the-world
Evolution by expedition, years of experimentation and his
knowledge of geology and fossil.
Natural • Evolution can be defined as the change in the
Selection frequency of a phenotype in a population
over many generations.
• Darwin’s theory, very simply, is:
• Individuals in a species show a wide range of
variation caused by differences in genes.
• Individuals with characteristics most suited to the
environment have a higher chance of survival and
more chances to reproduce.
• Therefore, these characteristics are passed to their
offspring at a higher rate than those with
characteristics less suited to survival.
• Over many generations, these beneficial
characteristics become more common in the
population and the species changes (the species
evolves).
• This idea of natural selection became known as
‘survival of the fittest’.
• Darwin published his ideas in his famous book, On
the Origin of Species (1859).
Selection
pressure
• Selection pressure means
factors that contribute to
selection which variations
will provide the individual
with an increase chance of
surviving over others.
Because of selective
pressures, organisms with
certain phenotypes have an
advantage when it comes
to survival and
reproduction. Over time,
this leads to evolution.
Selective advantage
• Any characteristic or trait that
gives an organism or a genotype
greater chances of surviving and
reproducing than the available
alternatives.
Natural
selection
• Natural selection is the process
through which populations of
living organisms adapt and
change.
• Individuals in a population are
naturally variable, meaning that
they are all different in some
ways.
• This variation means that some
individuals have traits better
suited to the environment than
others.
 • The theory of evolution by natural selection was
only gradually accepted because:
• There was much controversy surrounding
these revolutionary new ideas.

The • The theory challenged the idea that God

made all the animals and plants that live
acceptance on Earth.
• There was insufficient evidence at the time
of evolution the theory was published to convince many
scientists.
• The mechanism of inheritance and
variation was not known until 50 years
after the theory was published.
• The theory of evolution by natural
selection developed over time and from
information gathered by many scientists.
Another good
example of natural
selection is the
evolution of the
peppered moths
Examples of
evolution by
natural
selection
Adaptations of
polar bears.
• A thick layer of white fur.
• Wide, large paws.
• Strong, muscular legs.
• Nostrils that close when the
bear is swimming under water.
• A large body mass.
• A 10cm thick layer of insulating
fat under the skin.
• A well-developed sense of
smell.
• Bumps on the pads of the paws.
• short, powerful claws.
The hoverfly and the wasp
• Hoverflies do not have a sting. But they have an appearance that is
very like a wasp, with similar yellow and black stripes. They are
mimics of wasps.
• The selection pressure was predation can be minimized due to this
warning colouration.
• These insects had a selective advantage.
Antibiotic Resistance
• Antibiotics are chemical substances made by certain fungi
or bacteria that affect the working of bacterial cells, either
by disrupting their structure or function or
by preventing them from reproducing
• Antibiotics are effective against bacteria but not against
viruses
• Antibiotics target processes and structures that are specific
to bacterial (prokaryotic) cells; as such they do not
generally harm animal cells
How antibiotics
work
• The use of antibiotics has
increased exponentially since
they were first introduced in
the 1930s
• In that time they have saved
millions of lives.
• However, since their discovery and widespread use, antibiotics
have been overused and antibiotic resistance has developed in
many different types of bacterial species
• Bacteria, like all organisms, have random mutations in
their DNA
• One of these mutations may give them resistance to an
antibiotic
• If an organism is infected with bacteria and some of them
have resistance, they are likely to survive treatment with
antibiotics
• The population of the resistant bacteria will increase
• If the resistant strain is causing a serious infection then
another antibiotic will be needed
• A strain of Staphylococcus aureus has developed
resistance to a powerful antibiotic methicillin, this is
known as MRSA (Methicillin resistant Staphylococcus
aureus)
• MRSA can infect wounds and is difficult to treat without
antibiotics
Bacteria evolve rapidly
as they reproduce
quickly and acquire
random mutations –
some of which confer
resistance
 • To reduce the number of bacteria that are becoming
resistant to antibiotics:
• Doctors need to avoid the overuse of antibiotics,
prescribing them only when needed – they may
test the bacteria first to make sure that they
Preventing prescribe the correct antibiotic
• Antibiotics shouldn’t be used in non-serious
resistant infections that the immune system will ‘clear up’
• Antibiotics shouldn’t be used for viral infections
bacteria • Patients need to finish the whole course of
antibiotics so that all the bacteria are killed and
none are left to mutate to resistant strains
• Antibiotics use should be reduced in industries
such as agriculture – controls are now in place to
limit their use in farming
 • Good hygiene practices such as handwashing
Reducing and the use of hand sanitisers have reduced
the spread of the rates of resistant strains of bacteria, such
as MRSA, in hospitals
resistant • The isolation of infected patients to prevent
the spread of resistant strains, in particular in
strains surgical wards where MRSA can infect
surgical wounds
 • Viruses cannot be treated with antibiotics
• This is because antibiotics work
by disrupting cell functions such as
respiration, or breaking down the
Antibiotics structure of the cell in some way
• However, viruses do not carry out any cell
do not affect functions and do not have cell walls, cell
viruses membranes or any cell organelles as
viruses infect and utilise the machinery of
animal cells to reproduce, which are not
affected by antibiotics.
• Therefore, the action of antibiotics do not
affect them.