BY GROUP ONE

CHESHTA MINOCHA
MANVI CHIB
AAKRITI TALWAR
AASTHA KATHURIA
ANANYA SACHETI
ANUSHKA SHARMA

LEARNING AYUSHI CHAKMA

AVNEET KAUR

 DEFINITION OF LEARNING
 ELEMENT OF LEARNING
 FEATURES OF LEARNING
  Learning may be defined as ‘ANY RELATIVELY
LEARNING PERMAMENT CHANGE IN BEHAVIOUR OR
BEHAVIOURAL POTENTIAL PRODUCED BY
EXPERIENCE’.
DEFINITIONS ARE NOTEWORTHY

o First, the term learning does not apply to temporary changes in behavior as those stemming from fatigue, drugs, or
illness.
o Secondly , it does not refer to changes resulting from maturation the fact that you change in many ways as you
grow and develop.
o Third , learning can result from vicarious as well as from direct experiences; in other words ,you can be affected
by observing events and behavior in your environment as well as by participating in them [Bandura,1986].
o Finally , the change produced by learning are not always positive in nature.
 FEATURES OF LEARNING

The first feature is that learning always evolves some kinds of experience.

We experience an event occurring in a certain sequence on a number of occasions. If an event happens then it may be
followed by certain other events.
FOR EXAMPLE ; ONE LEARNS THAT IF THE BELL RINGS IN THE HOSTEL AFTER SUNSET , THEN DINNER IS
READY TO BE SERVED.REPEATED EXPERIENCE OF SATISFACTION AFTER DOING SOMETHING IN A SPECIFIED
MANNER LEADS TO THE FORMATION OF HABIT.
SOMETIMES A SINGLE EXPERIENCE CAN LEAD TO LEARNING.
FOR EXAMPLE; A CHILD STRIKES A MATCHSTICK ON THE SIDE OF A MATCHBOX AND GETS HER/HIS FINGERS
BURNT.SUCH AN EXPERIENCE MAKES THE CHILD LEARN TO BE CAREFUL IN HANDLING THE MATCHBOX IN
FUTURE.
 BEHAVIOURAL CHANGES THAT OCCUR DUE TO LEARNING ARE RELATIVELY PERNAMENT.

THEY MUST BE DISTINGUISHED FROM THE BEHAVIOURAL CHANGES THAT ARE NEITHER
PERNAMENT NOR LEARNED.

FOR EXAMPLE;CHANGES IN BEHAVIOUR OFTEN OCCUR DUE TO THE EFFECT OF

FATIGUE,HABITUATION,AND DRUGS. SUPPOSE WE ARE READING OUR TEXTBOOK OF PSYCHOLOGY
FOR SOMETIME OR YOU ARE TRYING TO LEARN HOW TO DRIVE A MOTOR CAR,A TIME COMES
WHEN WHEN YOU FEEL TRIED.

THIS IS A BEHAVIOURAL CHANGE DUE TO FATIGUE,AND IS TEMPORARY.

IT IS NOT CONSIDERED LEARNING.
 CLASSICAL CONDITIONING

A basic form of learning in which one stimulus comes to serve as a signal for the occurrence of a
second stimulus.
Stimulus : A physical event capable of affecting behaviour.
This type of learning was first investigated by Ivan P. Pavlov. To study digestion, Pavlov presented
food to dogs and measured their salivary response. He noticed that with repeated testing, the dogs
began to salivate before the food was presented, such as when they heard the footsteps of the
approaching experimenter.
 STUDY OF PAVLOV

Dogs have a natural reflex to salivate to food but not to tones. Yet when a
tone or other stimulus that ordinarily did not cause salivation was presented
just before food powder was squirted into a dog’s mouth, soon the sound of
the tone alone made the dog’s mouth salivate. This process of learning by
association came to be called Classical or Pavlovian conditioning.
 ELEMENTS OF CLASSICAL
CONDITIONING
Unconditioned Stimulus The original, naturally occurring stimulus is called
the unconditioned stimulus (UCS). The term unconditioned means
“unlearned.” This is the stimulus that ordinarily leads to the involuntary
response. In the case of Pavlov’s dogs, the food is the unconditioned stimulus

Unconditioned Response The automatic and involuntary response to the

unconditioned stimulus is called the unconditioned response (UCR) for
much the same reason. It is unlearned and occurs because of genetic
“wiring” in the nervous system. For example, in Pavlov’s experiment, the
salivation to the food is the UCR
Conditioned Stimulus Pavlov determined that almost any kind of stimulus could become associated with the unconditioned
stimulus (UCS) if it is paired with the UCS often enough. In his original study, the sight of the food dish itself became a
stimulus for salivation before the food was given to the dogs. Every time they got food (to which they automatically
salivated), they saw the dish. At this point, the dish was a neutral stimulus (NS) because it had no effect on salivation. After
being paired with the food so many times, the dish came to produce a salivation response, although a somewhat weaker
one, as did the food itself. When a previously neutral stimulus, through repeated pairing with the unconditioned stimulus,
begins to cause the same kind of involuntary response, learning has occurred. The previously neutral stimulus can now be
called a conditioned stimulus (CS).

Conditioned Response The response that is given to the CS (conditioned

stimulus) is not usually quite as strong as the original unconditioned response
(UCR), but it is essentially the same response. However, because it comes as a
learned response to the conditioned stimulus (CS), it is called the conditioned
response
PROCESS OF CONDITIONING

• DELAY OF CONDITIONING

• TRACE CONDITIONING

• SIMULTANEOUS CONDITIONING

• BACKWARD CONDITIONING
DELAY OF CONDITIONING

• A form of forward conditioning in which the onset of the

unconditioned stimulus begins while the conditioned
stimulus is still present.

• Conditioned stimulus and conditioned stimulus overlap

each other in delay of conditioning
TRACE CONDITIONING

• A form of forward conditioning in which the onset of the

conditioned stimulus precedes the onset of the
unconditioned stimulus and the presentation of the
conditioned and the unconditioned stimulus does not
overlap.
SIMULTANEOUS CONDITIONING

• A form of conditioning in which the conditioned stimulus and

the unconditioned stimulus begin and end at the same time.

BACKWARD CONDITIONING
• A type of conditioning in which the presentation of the
unconditioned stimulus precedes the presentation of the
conditioned stimulus.
 EXTINCTION
IT IS A PROCESS THROUGH WHICH A CONDITIONED STIMULUS
GRADUALLY LOSES THE ABILITY TO EVOKE CONDITIONED RESPONSE
WHEN IT IS NO LONGER FOLLOWED BY THE UNCONDITIONED STIMULUS.
SPONTANEOUS RECOVERY
REAPPEARANCE OF A WEEKEND CONDITIONED RESPONSE TO A CONDITIONED
STIMULUS AFTER AN INTERVAL OF TIME FOLLOWING EXTINCTION.
RECONDITIONING – RAPID RECOVERY OF A CR TO A CS-UCS PAIRING FOLLOWING
EXTINCTION.
SPONTANEOUS RECOVERY
 STIMULUS GENERALIZATION AND
DISCRIMINATION
• Generalization- tendency of a stimuli similar to a conditioned stimulus to evoke conditioned response.
• Discrimination – process by which organisms learn to respond to certain
Stimuli but not to others.
 HIGHER ORDER CONDITIONING

Binging
+ with a
close
partner
Conditioned Response
Neutral Stimulus Conditioned Stimulus

Conditioned
Conditioned Response
Stimulus
 CONDITIONED EMOTIONAL RESPONSE

Dog gets in a car.

The destination is The Vet (presumably a scary location for an animal).

Next time the dog gets in the car, is again to visit the vet.

The dog develops an emotional response to every time it gets in the car.

The dog to refuses to get in the car due to the fear of vet.

The dog is now classically conditioned to feel the same way

about the car that it felt about the vet's office.
CER - Fear
OTHER CONDITIONED
RESPONSES IN HUMAN
 TASTE AVERSION
Taste aversion is a learned response to eating spoiled or toxic food. It ia a persons tendency to form
negative associations with food eaten before getting ill, even if the food did not cause the illness.

A person who starts feeling nauseous and sick after eating a particular
food for example, pasta, will start to avoid it after fully recovering from
their illness as they will start to associate its smell and taste with the
sickness.
PSYCHOLOGISTS JOHN GARCIA AND ROBERT KOELLING STUDIED TASTE AVERSION IN 1966
WHILE RESEARCHING THE EFFECTS OF RADIATION ON LABORATORY RATS.

GARCIA AND KOELLING GAVE THREE GROUPS OF RATS' HIGH, MEDIUM, OR LOW DOSES OF
RADIATION AFTER THE RATS DRANK SWEETENED WATER. THE HIGHER THE DOSE OF
RADIATION, THE SICKER THE RATS BECAME. AS YOU MIGHT PREDICT, THE RATS THAT
RECEIVED THE HIGHEST DOSES OF RADIATION STRONGLY ASSOCIATED THE SWEETENED
WATER WITH THE ILLNESS FOLLOWING THE RADIATION. THE MAJORITY OF THOSE RATS LATER
REFUSED TO DRINK SWEETENED WATER.

SWEET WATER = CONDITIONED STIMULUS

RADIATION = UNCONDITIONED STIMULUS
NAUSEA AT SIGHT OF SWEET WATER = CONDITIONED RESPONSE
 BIOLOGICAL PREPAREDNESS

Biological preparedness is a concept that proposes that organisms innately form associations between
some stimuli and responses. A predisposition to be sensitive towards certain stimuli. The fear itself is
not inborn but the innate tendency to acquire a fear towards potentially harmful phenomenon.

spiders, and dangerous heights are all things that can potentially be deadly. Biological
preparedness makes it so that people tend to form fear associations with these threatening
options

Some associations are easily made and are thought to be inherent while some are formed less easily.
An example of an easily formed association is taste aversion- we seek to avoid food that is bad for us
as a survival instinct.
STIMULUS SUBSTITUTION

According to APA, stimulus substitution is a way of characterizing the outcome of classical conditioning
when the conditioned stimulus is said to have taken on the functions of the unconditioned stimulus.

During classical conditioning when the conditioned stimulus starts eliciting the unconditioned response without
the unconditioned stimulus, this process of transfer of functions is called stimulus substitution

For example, in Ivan Pavlov’s early experiments, the sound of a bell paired with food eventually came to elicit
salivation, just as the food did; that is, the bell substituted for the food.