ORGANIZATIONAL CHANGE (4 TH

ED.)
Barbara Senior & Stephen Swailes

Chapter 5: The politics of change

Politics, power, conflict
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
By the end of this chapter, you will be able to:
 explain what is meant by organizational politics;
 distinguish between different sources of power and ways
of using power to influence change;
 define and discuss the links between power, politics and
conflict;
 identify different ways of resolving conflict and the
situations they can be applied to.
ORGANIZATIONAL POLITICS
 Political behaviour is the practical domain of power in action,
worked out through the use of techniques of influence and other
(more or less extreme) tactics.(Huczynski 2007).

 Organizational politics are informal, unofficial, and sometimes behind-

the-scenes efforts to sell ideas, influence an organization, increase
power, or achieve other targeted objectives (Brandon & Seldman, 2004; 

 Robbins (2005) says that political behavior is

. . . those activities that are not required as part of one’s formal role in
the organization, but that influence, or attempt to influence, the
distribution of advantages and disadvantages within the organization.
(pp. 400-401)
ORGANIZATIONAL POLITICS
 Legitimate political behaviour - Normal everyday politics
such as bypassing the chain of command, forming coalitions,
obstructing organization policies .

 Illegitimate political behaviour - sabotage, whistle blowing

and groups of employees reporting sick(Robbin 2005)
ANTECEDENTS OF POLITICAL BEHAVIOR
ANTECEDENTS OF POLITICAL BEHAVIOR
 Individual Antecedents
 Political skill refers to peoples’ interpersonal style, including their
ability to relate well to others, self-monitor, alter their reactions
depending upon the situation they are in, and inspire confidence
and trust 
 Individuals who are high in internal locus of control believe that they
can make a difference in organizational outcomes.
 Investment in the organization . If a person is highly invested in an
organization either financially or emotionally, they will be more likely
to engage in political behavior because they care deeply about the
fate of the organization
 Expectations of success also matter. When a person expects that
they will be successful in changing an outcome, they are more
likely to engage in political behavior
 ANTECEDENTS OF POLITICAL BEHAVIOR

 Organizational Antecedents
 Scarcity of resources . When resources such as monetary incentives
or promotions are limited, people will compete to involve political
behaviours to get the resources.

 Role ambiguity . Role ambiguity allows individuals to negotiate and

redefine their roles. Research shows that when people do not feel
clear about their job responsibilities, they perceive the organization as
more political (Muhammad, 2007).

 Ambiguity in performance evaluation and promotions. Employee are

not clear about the performance evaluation and promotion process and
cause them to influence management in the process.

 Democratic decision making leads to more political behavior. Since

many people have a say in the process of making decisions, there are
more people available to be influenced.
POWER IN ORGANISATION

 ‘Power refers to a capacity that A has to influence the

behaviour of B, so that B acts in accordance with A’s wishes.
(Robbins, 2005, p. 390

 Power in action’ who maintains that this happens whenever

people get together in groups and where an individual or group
seeks to influence the thoughts, attitudes or behaviours of
another individual or group (Robbins (2005 ) .

 Power is the ability to make things happen and to overcome

resistance in order to achieve desired objectives or results.
 Political behavior is the observable but often covert actions by
which executives (and others) enhance their power to influence
decisions.
 FIVE SOURCES OF POWER

 Legitimate Power/Positional – A formal position the person

held in the organization.
 Reward power - This power comes from the persons ability to
offer and influence incentives in an organization
 Coercive power – Power for forcing someone to do something
that they would not want to do. E.g punishment
 Referent power – The attractiveness of a person to others
provides him referent power. E.g charisma
 Expert power - The personal expertise & knowledge is
possessed by a person gives him expert power.
FORMAL AND PERSONAL POWER (ROBERT)
Formal power
● Coercive power. This is dependent on fear. One reacts to this power
out of fear of the negative results that might occur if one failed to
comply.

● Reward power. The opposite of coercive power. People comply

with directives because doing so produces positive benefits; therefore
one who can distribute rewards that others view as valuable will have
power over others.

● Legitimate power. It represents the formal authority to control and

use organizational resources

● Information power. This derives from the access to and control over
information.
FORMAL AND PERSONAL POWER (ROBERT)
Personal power

● Expert power. Influence displayed in expertise, specialist skills and

knowledge. Particularly relevant in a technological environment in
which most of us now operate.

● Referent power. Identification with a person who has desirable

resources or personal traits.

● Charismatic power. An extension of referent power that comes from

an individual’s personality and interpersonal style. These individuals
may not be in formal positions of power or leadership, but may have
influence over others.
INFLUENCING OTHERS THROUGH PUSH AND
PULL STRATEGIES

Push and Pull strategies associated with the ability to withdraw or

bestow valued rewards.

Push’ strategies - Push strategies attempt to influence people by

imposing or threatening to impose ‘costs’ on the people or group
concerned if they do not do what is required.

‘Pull’ or ‘reward’ strategies - Rewards are often used to influence

people by a process of exchange.
SYMBOLIC POWER

The power to manipulate and use symbols to create

organizational environments and the beliefs and
understandings of others to suit one’s own purposes. For
example: calling someone “boss” symbolizes their power in
relation to one another.
CONFLICT IN ORGANIZATION
 Definition….

 We can define conflict … as a process that begins when one

party perceives that another party has negatively affected, or
is about to negatively affect, something that the first party
cares about. (Robbins, 2005, p. 422)

 For our purpose we can see conflict as: behaviour intended to

obstruct the achievement of some other person’s goals.
(Mullins, 2005, p. 904)
VIEWS OF CONFLICT
The Interactionist View of conflict
 According to this view, conflict is not only a positive force, but is
also necessary for an individual to perform effectively.

 Resolving conflict means challenging normal processes and

procedures in an effort to improve individual productivity or
introduce innovative systems (Robbins, et al, 2003).

 This school of thought has identified several types of conflict:

 Task conflict, relates to the content and goals of the work;
 relationship conflict - which focuses on interpersonal relationships;
 process conflict - which relates to how the work gets done
VIEWS OF CONFLICT

Traditional View of conflict (1930-1940) .

 One school of thought says that conflict must be avoided as it
reflects malefaction within the group.
 Conflict is a result of poor communication and a lack of trust
between people.
 Conflict can be eliminated or resolved only at high level of
management.
 Thus, there is need to pay attention to causes of conflict and
correct them in order to improve group and organization
performance (Robins, 2005). M
CONFLICT EFFECT TO ORGANIZATION
 Functional or Constructive Conflict:
conflict that supports the goals of the group and improves
its (group’s) performance especially conflicts related to
tasks or procedures.
The positive effects of conflict are: improving the quality
of decisions, stimulating involvement in the discussion and
building group cohesion
 Dysfunctional/Destructive Conflict :

There are conflicts that hinder group performance

CLASSIFICATION OF CONFLICT

a) Relationship Conflict – Interpersonal incompatibilities among

group members, including personality clashes, tension, animosity
and annoyance will turn produces negative individual emotions,
such as anxiety, mistrust.

(a) Task Conflicts: Disagreements about the content of a task and

work goals, such as distribution of resources, procedures , and
interpretation of facts. Also include differences in view points,
ideas and opinions,

(b) Process Conflicts - This refers to disagreement about how a task should
be accomplished, individuals’ responsibilities and delegation.
 THE NATURE OF CONFLICT
Five layers on conflict :-
 Misunderstandings – These are ‘getting the wrong end of the stick’-
genuine misconceptions about what was said or done and which have the
capacity for speedy resolution.

 Differences of values – Conflicting values lead to the most serious disagreements.

The values involved may be based on ethical considerations such as whether to take
bribes to win contracts.

 Differences of viewpoint – Different parties may share the same values but have
different views on how particular goals or purposes should be me.

 Difference of interest - Status, resources, advancement are all people

want and want to keep hold of them. These are constantly being adjusted
and become competition between individuals..

 Interpersonal differences – Some people find it difficult to work with others due to
personality clashes.
 CAUSES OF CONFLICT
a) Specialization.
Employees tend to become specialists in a particular job only and little
knowledge of other tasks. E.g. assumption of simple job on doing specified
task that leads to conflict.

b) Limited Resources.
In many work situations, we have to share resources. The scarcer the
resource in the organization, the greater the chance for a conflict situation
.
c) Goal Differences.
Very often, the possibility of conflict increases substantially when
departments in the organization have different or incompatible goals.
e.g marketing and operation dept.
CAUSES OF CONFLICT
d) Interdependence
The possibility of conflict usually has a tendency to increase with the
level of task interdependence. When a person has to depend on
someone else to complete his/her task, it becomes easier to blame a
co-worker when something goes wrong.

(e) Jurisdictional Ambiguities

Responsibilities are uncertain, then jurisdictional ambiguities appear.
Employees have a tendency to pass unwanted responsibilities to
another person when responsibilities are not clearly stated that leads
to conflict.
 CAUSES OF CONFLICT

f) Overlapping authority - If two different functions or divisions claim

authority for the same task, conflict may develop.

g) incompatible evaluation systems - Inequitable performance

evaluation systems that reward some functions but not others
sometimes create conflict.

h) Cultural differences
Conflict can arise through misunderstandings or through inappropriate
behaviour due to cultural differences.
 FIVE CONFLICT-HANDLING STRATEGIES
1. Competing - win/lose situation.
The conflict will be resolved to suit one of the parties only.
Can lead to negative feelings on the part of the loser and damage the
relationship.

2. Collaborating - win/win outcome .

High quality solution through the results of the inputs of both parties.
Both sides being reasonably satisfied. They require openness and
trust and a flexibility of approach.

3. Compromising - The needs of both parties are partially satisfied.

It requires a trading of resources. Openness and trust may not be as
great as for collaboration but compromise might set up a relationship
that, in the future, could move to collaboration.
FIVE CONFLICT-HANDLING STRATEGIES
4. Avoiding -. It creates a no-win situation.
Does not tackle the problem. Allow a cooling-off period and allows the
parties to gather more information to begin negotiations a fresh or
decide there is no conflict after all. Can give rise to frustration on one
side if they think the issue is important while the other side do not.

5. Accommodating. - lose/win situation.

Retains a good relationship between the parties. It involves
recognizing when the other party might have a better solution than
oneself. It is used when relationships are more important than the
problem. It builds goodwill.
SITUATIONS IN WHICH TO USE THE FIVE
CONFLICT-HANDLING STYLE
Competing
 1 When quick, decisive action is vital

– e.g. emergencies.
 2. On important issues where unpopular actions need
implementing – e.g. cost cutting, enforcing unpopular rules,
discipline.
 3. On issues vital to company welfare when you know you
are right.
 4. Against people who take advantage of non competitive
behaviour.
SITUATIONS IN WHICH TO USE THE FIVE
CONFLICT-HANDLING STYLE
Collaborating
 1. To find an integrative solution when both sets of concerns
are too important to be compromised.
 2. When your objective is to learn.

 3. To merge insights from people with different perspectives.

 4 .To gain commitment by incorporating concerns into a

consensus.
 5. To work through feelings that have interfered with a
relationship.
SITUATIONS IN WHICH TO USE THE FIVE
CONFLICT-HANDLING STYLE
Compromising
 1. When goals are important, but not worth the effort or
potential disruption of more assertive modes
 2. When opponents with equal power are committed to
mutually exclusive goals.
 3. To achieve temporary settlements of complex issues.

 4. To arrive at expedient solutions to complex issues.

 5. As a back-up when collaboration or competition is

unsuccessful.
SITUATIONS IN WHICH TO USE THE FIVE
CONFLICT-HANDLING STYLE
Avoiding
1. When an issue is trivial, or more important issues are
pressing.
2. When you perceive no chance of satisfying your concerns.
3 .When potential disruption outweighs the benefits of
resolution.
4. To let people cool down and regain perspective.
5. When gathering information supersedes immediate decision.
6. When others can resolve the conflict more effectively.
7. When issues seem tangential or symptomatic of other issue
DEALING WITH CONFLICT
Guidelines for dealing with conflict
1. Encourage openness

2. Model appropriate responses

3. Provide summaries and restatements of the position

4. Bring in people who are not directly involved

5. Encouraged people to take time to think and reassess

6. Us the strengths of the group

7. Focus on shared goals

8. Use directions and interests to develop areas of new gain

9. Try to build objectivity into the process

10. Adopt an enquiring approach to managing

ASSESSING POWER FOR CHANGE
 Categorize individual or group according to their power to
block change and their motivation to do so.

 If individual has little power to block change and, in addition,

little motivation to do so no immediate action needs to be
taken. (cell C)
 If there is both power to block change and the motivation to
do so, this represents a serious situation in terms of the need
to negotiate with those concerned and, if possible, to reach a
collaborative agreement. (Cell B)
 POWER, CONFLICT AND CHANGE
Action on power, conflict and change

- little power to block change and, in addition, little motivation to do so no immediate

action needs to be taken. (cell C)
- cell D might begin to gain power and thus move into the more contentious
group represented by cell B. these people should be kept informed of change
developments, with some effort being made to persuade them that the change
might bring them benefits
- A potential danger to any change is represented cell A. High degree of power
but little motivation to do anything about the change. keeping them satisfied.
- If there is both power to block change and the motivation to do so,
need to negotiate to reach a collaborative agreement. (Cell B)
ASSESSING POWER FOR CHANGE
 A potential danger to any change is represented by those who fall
into cell A of the matrix. High degree of power but little motivation to
do anything about the change. A strategy towards these people,
therefore, should be one of ‘keeping them satisfied’. This means
maintaining their awareness of how the change might benefit them.

 the people categorized into cell D might begin to gain power and
thus move into the more contentious group represented by cell B.
Consequently, these people should be kept informed of change
developments, with some effort being made to persuade them that
the change might bring them benefits
TUTORIALS
 Do you think politics are a positive or negative thing for
organizations? Why?
 Describe an example of a negative outcome due to politics.

 Describe an example of a positive outcome due to politics

 Discuss the following statement: “Conflict can add substantial

value to creating an effective organization