CHAPTER 3.

0
RESISTOR
Group 1: Reactive Power
 RESISTOR
 Resistors are electronic components that
increase resistance. They work against the
flow, reducing the amount of current in a
portion of a circuit.

 Resistors dissipate the power through heat

radiation and are classified by the amount of
resistance they provide.

 Resistors dissipate the current through heat

and are classified by the amount of energy
they can dissipate. Most resistors are made of
ceramic or other materials that radiate heat at
a predictable rate.
 1
The Mighty Resistor
RESISTOR
A resistor is a passive electronic
component that we use in electronic
circuits either to limit current through an
active component or to reduce voltage in
the circuit.
 There are several different types of resistors that can be used depending on its
uses or application.

 A lower power resistor

 A high power resistor
 Several resistor in one package (resistor array)
 A rheostat (variable resistor) for experimentation
NOTE:

Current through a resistor is directly proportional to the voltage applied across

the resistor. This is derived from Ohm Law and is represented by equation I = V/R.
Where:
I = current through resistor (in amperes)
V = voltage across resistor (in volts)
R = resistance of the resistor (in ohms)

It is common to use Ω, KΩ and MΩ values for resistors.

 There are 1,000 Ω in a KΩ (kiloohm) 1kΩ=1000 Ω
 There are 1000 KΩ in a MΩ (megaohm) 1MΩ = 1,000,000 Ω

For example, a 4,700 Ω resistor is usually expressed as 4.7Ω

6
 2
Fixed Value Resistor
 Fixed Resistor
Fix resistor have only one ohmic value, which cannot be change of adjusted. One
type of fixed resistor is the composition carbon resistor.

Carbon resistors are very popular for

most application because they are
inexpensive and readily available in
standard sizes and wattages.
 FIXED RESISTOR
Metal Film resistors are another type of fixed
resistor. These resistors are superior to carbon
resistors because their ohmic value does not
change with the age and they have improved
tolerance.

Wire-wound resistors are fixed resistors that are made by winding a piece of
resistive wire around a ceramic core. These are used when a high power rating
is required.
 3
Resistor Color Codes and
Power Ratings
 RESISTOR COLOR CODES
The resistor color code can be used to
determine the resistor’s ohmic value and
tolerance.
 Some resistors are too small for their values to
be printed on them.
 The simplest color code is one that has four
bands.
 In order to read the code, it is necessary to get
the resistor the right way around.

Exceeding the power rating causes

damage to a resistor.
 RESISTOR COLOR CODES
The table gives the list of the colors and there associated values.
 Write down the value of band A
 Wrote down the value of band B
 Band C gives the number of zeros to add to the numbers
you already written down.
 If band C is black, add no zeroes.
 The number you have written down is in ohm and convert
it to kilohms or megohms if necessary.
What about the 4th band?

This gives the tolerance of the resistor. It is often called tolerance band. This
indicates the accuracy if the value given by the first three bands.
 RESISTOR COLOR CODES
Example:

Band A is yellow: value is 4

Band B is violet: value is 7
Band C is red: add two zeroes
This gives 4,700 Ω
This is equivalent to 4.7k Ω
Band D is gold: this means the value is within 5% of 4.7k Ω
5% of 4.7KΩ is 235Ω. So the value is 4,700 Ω ±235 Ω
(between 4,465 Ω and 4,935 Ω)
 Summary:

 Resistors are used in two main application: as voltage dividers and to limit the flow of
current in a circuit.
 The value of fixed resistors cannot be change.
 There are several types of fixed resistors such as composition carbon, metal film and
wire-round.
 Carbon resistors change their resistance with age or if overheated.
 Metal film resistors never change there value but are more expensive than carbon
resistor
 The advantage of wire round resistors is there high power rating.
 Resistors often have bands of color to indicate their resistance value and tolerance
 Resistors are produced in standard values. The number values between 0 and 100Ω
is determined by the tolerance.
 The four band color code is the most common variation. These resistors have two
bands for the resistance value, one multiplier and one tolerance band. 
 4
Reading the Codes
 Reading the Codes
Reading resistor color codes is easy once you understand
the meaning and the math behind each band used to
indicate resistance value, tolerance, and sometimes even
the temperature coefficient.

Many resistors have some of the color bands grouped

closer together or grouped toward one end. Hold the
resistor with these grouped bands to your left. Always read
resistors from left to right.
Reading the Codes

Let’s determine the resistance of a resistor with a

blue stripe, a yellow stripe, and An orange stripe.

First, refer to the Resistor Color Code to

determine the values for each Stripe. According to
the Resistor Color Code, the first stripe, blue, has
a value of 6. The Second stripe, yellow, has a
value of 4. The third stripe has a value of 10^3, or
1,000. To calculate the resistance level, You
multiply 64 times 1,000, giving you a value of
64,000Ω.
 Reading the Codes
Let’s consider a resistor that is marked,
from left to right, yellow, violet, and red.
The first band is yellow, so the first digit is
4. The second band is violet, which
Represents 7. The third stripe is red, which
represents 10^2. So we would have a
resistor Value of 47 × 10^2 or 4,700Ω. As
there is no fourth band, the tolerance is ±
20 percent.
Note:
Only the tolerance band can be gold or
silver, so if that is the first band you see,
flip the resistor over and start reading
the code from the other end.
 5
Power Ratings
 The power rating is given in watts (W). Because watts are a
unit of power and not Current or voltage, to determine the
appropriate power rated resistor for your projects You need to
calculate the wattage of your circuit. To solve for watts, you
divide the Voltage in volts squared by the resistance in ohms.

Carbon-film and metal-film resistors are usually available in

a range from 1⁄8 to 2W. Usually, the larger the physical size of the
resistor, the higher the power rating. Wire-wound resistors are
used where higher wattage ratings are needed, as they can Have
a power rating range from 1W to 10W.

21
 6
Surface Mount Resistor
 Modern electronics generally use surface mount
technology, mounted via Soldering to the surface of a board.
Surface mount resistors do not use the resistor color Code.
Instead, a three- or four-digit code is printed on the resistor. In
a three-digit code, The first digit represents the first significant
digit, the second, the second significant Digit, and the third is
the exponent of 10 value.
So if it is marked 201, the resistance Value is 20 × 10^1, or
200Ω. Some precision applications require more precise
resistors; In that case, you may see a four-digit code. The first
three digits represent the significant Digits and the fourth digit
is the exponent of 10 value.

23
 7
Variable Resistors
 What is a Variable Resistor?

A variable resistor is a resistor of which the electric

resistance value can be adjusted. A variable resistor is
in essence an electro-mechanical transducer and
normally works by sliding a contact (wiper) over a
resistive element. 
Types of Variable Resistor

Photoresistors Potentiometer
is a light dependent resistor is a three-terminal resistor
where resistance generated with a sliding or rotating
varies depending on the light contact that forms an
striking at its surface.  adjustable voltage divider.

Thermistors Varistor
type of resistor whose is a voltage dependent
resistance is strongly resistor where resistance
dependent on decreases when the voltage
temperature. increases.
Symbols for Various Types of
Resistor
 8
Single in line Resistor
 Single in line (SIL) resistors are a linked series of
resistors in one combined package, sometimes called
an SIL resistor network. They are used in many home
electronics; due to their compact size, they require less
solders than multiple individual resistors. They are
primarily used in surface mounted circuits.
 9
Kirchhoff’s Law
First Law (The Junction Rule)
States that “the amount of current that enters a junction
is the same as the current that exits that junction.”

Gustav Kirchhoff
(1824-1887)
Second Law (The Loop Rule)
States that “that the sum of all voltages in a closed
circuit is zero. ”

Gustav Kirchhoff
(1824-1887)
 10
Calculating Resistance
 Calculating Resistance
The resistance of an electrical component can be found by measuring the
electric current flowing through it and the potential difference across it.

Based on this law, as you construct a circuit you have three variables to
consider: Voltage, Current, and Resistance. In practice, you will encounter
components that have specified current and voltage levels for their operation,
and you will need to use Ohm’s Law to calculate the amount of resistance that
must be provided between the power supply and the component. In other
words, you will be solving for R. The equation for solving for R is R = V/I,
which means to find R, you need to divide the voltage by the current.
 
 Calculating Resistance
Here's a simple example.
You have a 5V power supply with a current rating of 500mA. If you wish to
build a circuit that employs a component that requires no more than 20mA of
current, divide 5V by.02A to find the resistance required. As a result, the
desired resistance is 250. In the prior example, the current values were given
in milliamps (mA) rather than amps. When working with electronics, not all
quantities are stated in amps (A), volts (V), or ohms (). You will frequently
come across figures such as mA or micro-amps (A). To perform any
computations, you must first convert your variables into like terms. So, if you
have 8V and 500mA, you must convert the mA to A by stating the amount
as.5A or 500 10–3A. Remember to utilize engineering notation to retain units
represented in normal metric numerals.
Basic Metrix Prefixes and their
Values
 Calculating Resistance
To calculate the total overall resistance of a number of resistors connected in
this way you add up the individual resistances. This is done using the
following formula: RTotal = R1 + R2 +R3 and so on.

To calculate the resistance of a wire:

1. Find out the resistivity of the material the wire is made of at the desired
temperature.
2. Determine the length and cross-sectional area of the wire.
3. Divide the length of the wire by its cross-sectional area.
4. Multiply the result from Step 3 by the resistivity of the material.
CHAPTER 3.1
CAPACITORS
 1
How a Capacitors Work
 CAPACITOR
o Capacitors are devices that store
electric charge
o A device used to store and release
electricity.
o Examples of where capacitors are used
include:
1. radio receivers
2. filters in power supplies
3. to eliminate sparking in automobile
ignition systems
4. energy-storing devices in electronic
flashes
PURPOSE:

A capacitor, also sometimes called a condenser.

Capacitors are used for many purposes, including
smoothing out spikes or drops in voltage and releasing
quick bursts of power in applications such as a camera
flash.
It accomplishes this by using its storage capacity—its
capacitance—to either donate or accept electrons when
there is a drop or a spike in voltage.
A voltage source is a two-terminal device which can
maintain a fixed voltage.
41
CAPACITANCE
The capacitance, C, of a capacitor is defined as the ratio of
the magnitude of the charge on either conductor to the potential
difference between the conductors.

42
 2
Farads
 The measure of capacitance is the farad, represented by an
F. A farad is equal to the current in coulombs required to
raise the voltage across the capacitor by one volt.
 The most commonly used units of capacitance are the
microfarad, nanofarad, and the picofarad. Integrated circuits use
even smaller capacitors, which require an even smaller unit of
measurement, a femtofarad (fF), which is 1 × 10−15F.
 3
Relative Permittivity
● Relative permittivity is defined as the ratio of the actual or absolute
permittivity of a medium to the absolute permittivity of vacuum. If the
permittivity of the medium is ϵ then,
● ϵr​=​
● As it is the ratio of permittivity, hence, it has no unit.
● Different dielectric materials give variable degrees of capacitance. Remember
that the dielectric in a capacitor is the insulating substance that retains
charge. The capacity to generate an electric field is referred to as permittivity.
Permittivity is measured in relation to a pure vacuum as the dielectric, which
is known as relative permittivity. A capacitor with a greater relative
permittivity can hold more charge; a capacitor with a lower relative
permittivity may keep less charge. The relative permittivity of a pure vacuum
is 1.0. The dielectric constant is sometimes used to express a material's
relative permittivity.

47
 The Dielectric Constant for Some Materials
Material Relative Permittivity (dielectric constant)
at 0°C
Vacuum 1.0000
Air 1.0006
Teflon (PTFE) polytetrafluoroethylene 2.0

Polypropylene 2.20 to 2.28

Polystyrene 2.45 to 4.0
Transformer oil 2.5 to 4
Hard rubber 2.5 to 4.80
Silicones 3.4 to 4.3
Bakelite 3.5 to 6.0
Quartz, fused 3.8
Glass 4.9 to 7.5
Porcelain, steatite 6.5
Distilled water 80.0
Hydrofluoric acid 83.6
Titanium dioxide 173
Strontium titanate 310 48
 4
Capacitor Ratings
 When selecting a capacitor, various considerations must be examined in addition to the materials used in its
 Capacitors are classified into different categories or families, each with its own
construction. Each capacitor's specified size does have a tolerance, with performance fluctuating by a
identifying system and characteristics. Several of these systems were simple to
percentage higher or understand.
lower. Additionally, higher
Other systems, on theor lower
other hand,temperatures would affect the dielectric's permittivity.
are loaded with symbols,
Capacitors possess maximum circuit
letters, and colors voltages,
that can thus toeven
also be difficult though the capacitor seems to have the right
understand.

capacitance, it simply doesn't work in the circuit whereas if means
Identifying a capacitor's characteristics typically circuitfinding outiswhich
voltage higher than the recommended
family it belongs to. Capacitor families include:
voltage. When selecting a good capacitor, each one of these considerations must be taken into account.
o Plastic
 The various characteristics of capacitors are typically used to distinguish themselves. The application,
o Ceramic
temperature, capacitance range, and voltage rating of a capacitor have all been determined by all of these
o Film
characteristics. It is also difficult to keep track of all the different capacitor qualities. Therefore, identifying and
comprehending the Electrolytic
information printed on a capacitor's body might well be challenging.

50
 Capacitors are classified into different categories or families, each with its own
identifying system and characteristics. Several of these systems were simple to
understand. Other systems, on the other hand, are loaded with symbols, letters,
and colors that can also be difficult to understand.

 Identifying a capacitor's characteristics typically means finding out which

family it belongs to. Capacitor families include:

 Plastic
 Ceramic
 Film and Electrolytic

51
 5
Nominal Value and Tolerance
Nominal Value and Tolerance

 The nominal value of capacitors is represented by a code imprinted on

them. The code for indicating the nominal value of the capacitor is
identical to the Resistor Color Code. The important digits (the numbers
to the left of the decimal point) are the first two digits, while the
exponent value is the third (the power of ten). The code expresses
values in pF since most capacitors have relatively modest values.

 Electronics buffs frequently refer to capacitors as caps and picofarads as

puffs.

 
53
 
Temperature Coefficients
 A capacitor’s performance can vary with the operating
temperature. Capacitors are sometimes marked with a
temperature coefficient, usually given as parts per million
(ppm)/°C. The temperature coefficient of (100 ppm/°C) is
equivalent to .01 percent/°C.
 A negative or positive value is commonly attributed to
temperature coefficients. A positive temperature coefficient
indicates that temperature and capacitance have a positive
relationship; in other words, as the temperature rises,
capacitance rises, and as the temperature falls, capacitance
decreases. A negative temperature coefficient indicates that
when the temperature rises, the capacitance drops and vice
versa. Both temperature and capacitance have a negative
relationship.

54
 6
Temperature Coefficients
 
Temperature Coefficients
 A capacitor’s performance can vary with the operating temperature.
Capacitors are sometimes marked with a temperature coefficient, usually
given as parts per million (ppm)/°C. The temperature coefficient of (100
ppm/°C) is equivalent to .01 percent/°C.

 A negative or positive value is commonly attributed to temperature

coefficients. A positive temperature coefficient indicates that temperature and
capacitance have a positive relationship; in other words, as the temperature
rises, capacitance rises, and as the temperature falls, capacitance decreases. A
negative temperature coefficient indicates that when the temperature rises,
the capacitance drops and vice versa. Both temperature and capacitance have
a negative relationship.

56
 7
Breakdown Voltage
 Breakdown Voltage
● The breakdown voltage of an insulator is the minimum voltage that causes a
portion of an insulator to experience electrical breakdown and become
electrically conductive.

● For diodes, the breakdown voltage is the minimum reverse voltage that

makes the diode conduct appreciably in reverse. Some devices (such as 
TRIACs) also have a forward breakdown voltage.

● Breakdown voltage is a parameter of a diode that defines the largest reverse

voltage that can be applied without causing an exponential increase in the
leakage current in the diode.

● Measuring breakdown voltage is done by applying an increasing reverse

voltage to the device until a certain test current is reached that indicates that
the device is in breakdown.
58
 8
DC Working Voltage
 DC Working Voltage

● Working voltage means the highest value of an electrical circuit voltage root-
mean-square (rms), specified by the manufacturer, which may occur between any
conductive parts in open circuit conditions or under normal operating conditions.
If the electrical circuit is divided by galvanic isolation, the working voltage is
defined for each divided circuit, respectively.

● The concept of working voltage applies to the behavior of the insulation at a

voltage level that may be present for an extended period.

60
 9
Polarized Capacitor Types
 Polarized Capacitor Types
● Polarized fixed capacitor. A polarized (“polar”) capacitor is a type of capacitor
that have implicit polarity – it can only be connected one way in a circuit. The
positive lead is shown on the schematic with a little “+” symbol.

● Essentially a polarised capacitor is one that must be run with the voltage across it
in a certain polarity. Some of the more popular types of polarised capacitor
include the aluminium electrolytic and tantalums.

● Aluminium capacitors are polarized electrolytic capacitors whose anode

electrode is made of a pure aluminum foil with an etched surface. The aluminum
forms a very thin insulating layer of aluminium oxide by anodization that acts as
the dielectric of the capacitor.

62
 Polarized Capacitor Types
● They are used in power supplies and DC-DC converters for smoothing and
buffering rectified DC voltages in many electronic devices.

● A tantalum electrolytic capacitor is an electrolytic capacitor, a passive

component of electronic circuits. It consists of a pellet of porous tantalum metal
as an anode, covered by an insulating oxide layer that forms the dielectric,
surrounded by liquid or solid electrolyte as a cathode.

● Tantalum capacitor is widely used in communications, aerospace and military

industries, submarine cables, advanced electronic devices, civil appliances,
televisions, and many other aspects.

63
 10
Variable Capacitor
 Variable Capacitor

A variable capacitor is a capacitor whose capacitance can be adjusted within a

certain range. When the relative effective area between the pole metal plates or the
distance between the plate’s changes, so does the capacitance.

It is commonly used in radio receiving circuits as a tuning capacitor. It is classified

into two types: air dielectric variable capacitors and solid dielectric variable
capacitors. It is widely used in circuits such as tuning and amplification, frequency
selective oscillation, and others.

65
 11
Capacitors in a Circuit
 Capacitors in a Circuit

When you combine capacitors in a series circuit, the sum of the capacitance is
less than the capacitance of the individual capacitors, unlike resistors. The
formula for calculating capacitance in a series is shown below (note that this is
the same formula used for parallel resistors):

When capacitors are connected in parallel, the total capacitance equals the sum
of the individual capacitances. Again, this is the inverse of the behavior of
parallel resistors. When a circuit first receives current, a capacitor is not yet
charged. As it charges, a capacitor allows current to flow through it. When a
capacitor is fully discharged, it acts as a short circuit; there is no voltage drop as
current flows.

67
 9
Transient time of Capacitors in
DC RC Circuit
Transient time of Capacitors in DC RC
Circuit

 In addition to the power supply, a capacitor in a circuit requires some resistance,

which can be provided by a resistor or a load. To describe the action of a
capacitor, we consider it as a component of an RC (resistor capacitor) circuit,
which is a simple DC circuit.

 The transient time is the period of time between when a capacitor is fully
discharged and when it is fully charged (or fully charged to fully discharged).
When the switch is first closed to start the flow of current, there is an initial burst
of charging, followed by a gradual increase until the capacitor is fully charged.

69
Transient time of Capacitors in DC RC
Circuit

•Calculating capacitance in series, where CT represents total capacitance and C1, C2, and so on represent the first and the second
capacitors in the series.

•Calculating capacitance in parallel

70
Transient time of Capacitors in DC RC
Circuit

•The transient time from zero to approximate fully charge.

71
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https://www.slideserve.com/joseph-rosario/resistors

https://www.slideshare.net/jeagrapher/bais-r-eport-monday

https://www.slideshare.net/sumeetpatel21/resistor-29288246

https://kitronik.co.uk/blogs/resources/how-to-calculate-resistors-in-series-and-parallel

https://www.toppr.com/ask/question/define-relative-premittivity-write-its-unit/

https://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/guides/z9sb2p3/revision/4

S.-WestcottJ.-R.-Westcott-Basic-Electronics_-Theory-and-Practice-Mercury-Learning-2017.pdf

72
Sources:
https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Breakdown_voltage

http://www.rs-online.com/designspark/performing-breakdown-voltage-and-leakage-current-measurements-on-to
days-high-voltage-semiconductor-devices

https://www.lawinsider.com/dictionary/working-voltage

https://www.cui.com/blog/insulation-isolation-and-working-voltage

https://www.electronics-notes.com/articles/electronic_components/capacitors/capacitor-types.php#:~:text=One
%20of%20the%20main%20distinctions,the%20aluminium%20electrolytic%20and%20tantalums
.

https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aluminum_electrolytic_capacitor

https://www.refractorymetal.org/tantalum-capacitor-characteristics-applications/

73