Introduction

Communication in Psychology
 Scientific research is a public activity.

A clever hypothesis, an elegant research

design, meticulous data collection procedures, reliable
results, and an insightful theoretical interpretation of
the findings are not useful to the scientific community
unless they are made public
 Psychology journals

There are dozens of psychology journals in which

researchers can publish
their findings. Psychological Science, Memory &
Cognition, Child Development, Journal of
Personality and Social Psychology, Psychological
Science in the Public Interest,
and Journal of Clinical and Consulting Psychology
are but a few.
 Editors’ decisions

Editors’ decisions about which manuscripts will be published are

based on
(a) the quality of the research
(b) the effectiveness of its presentation in the written manuscript, as
assessed by the editor and the peer reviewers.

*Thus, both content and style are important

 Psychology journals

 Researchers- often obtain financial support in the form of a grant

from a government or private agency in order to carry out their
research.

 Grants - are awarded on the basis of a competitive review of

research proposals.

 Research proposals - also typically are required of graduate

students when preparing a master’s thesis or dissertation.
Tips on Manuscript Preparation

 The primary resource for scientific

writing
in psychology is the sixth edition of the
Publication Manual of the American

 Psychological Association (APA,

2010b). Journal editors and authors
use this manual to ensure a consistent
style across the many different
journals in psychology.
Analyzing
and
Reporting
Research
 Analyzing and Reporting Research

This chapter is intended primarily to help you get started with

manuscript preparation and it is not a substitute for the Publication
Manual of the American Psychological Association (2010b).
The Internet
and Research
 THE INTERNET AND RESEARCH

The Internet
 has already become an indispensable tool for conducting research,
but it is also essential for communication among members of the scientific
community.
 also serves students and professional psychologists in many
other important ways, including discussion groups, databases, and electronic
journals.

E-mail
 For many researchers, it is their primary means of communication with
colleagues, journal editors, research collaborators, directors of granting
agencies, and other professionals.
 Discussion groups

 “Listservs,” allow interested individuals to discuss psychological issues

in which they share an interest.

 The group consists of a “list” of “subscribers” who wish to contribute to
an ongoing discussion.

 List members are immediately “served” any message posted by a

subscriber. There are hundreds of Listservs on the Internet that link
researchers around the world discussing a wide variety of topics, including
addiction, religion, and women’s studies.
 Databases
 Databases on the Internet are just that:
electronic data files that are stored on the Internet

 can be accessed electronically related to medicine, alcoholism, and

opinion polls are available, to mention but a few

 particularly useful when doing archival research and time-series

analyses .
 Electronic journals
 Current Research in Social Psychology and Prevention
and Treatment are examples of electronic journals.

 Whether submitting manuscripts to electronic or printed

journals,
GUIDELINES
FOR
EFFECTIVE
WRITING
 KNOW YOUR AUDIENCE

If you assume your readers know more than they

actually do, you will leave them confused.
 IDENTIFY YOUR PURPOSE

The principal purposes of a journal article are to

describe and to convince.
 WRITE CLEARLY

You will need to work and rework sentences in

order to achieve a smooth and logical flow of
your ideas
 BE CONCISE

If you say only what needs to be said, you will

achieve economy of expression.
 BE PRECISE

It requires choosing words that mean exactly what

you intend them to mean.
 FOLLOW GRAMMATICAL RULES

Adherence to grammatical rules is absolutely

necessary for good writing
 WRITE FAIRLY

As a writer you should also strive to choose words

and use constructions that acknowledge people
fairly and without bias.
 WRITE AN INTERESTING REPORT

An effort should be made to write in a way that

will interest your reader in what you did, what
was found, and what you concluded.
STRUCTURE OF
A RESEARCH
REPORT
 STRUCTURE OF A RESEARCH REPORT
 Serves complementary purposes for the author and for the reader.

 The structure provides an organization that the author can use to

present a clear description of the research and a convincing
interpretation of the findings.

 The reader of a research report can expect to find certain

information in each section. If you want to know how an
experiment was done, you would look in the Method section.
A research report consists of the following
sections:

Title Page (with Author Note)

Abstract
Introduction
Method
Results Main Body of Report
Discussion
References
Footnotes (if any)
Tables and Figures
Appendices (if any)
 Title Page

 The first page of a research report is the title page.

 It indicates what the title, authors, authors’ affiliation, “running
head”), and an author note.
 The author note identifies the author’s professional affiliation and
contact information, as well as listing any acknowledgments.
 The title is perhaps the most critical aspect of your paper.
 The title should clearly indicate the central topic of your paper.
 Avoid needless words such as “A Laboratory Study of …” or “An
Investigation of ….”
 Tips on Writing a Title

 The title of a research report identifies the

research question or the relevant
variables.

 The title must not only be informative,

but it should also be brief and interesting.

 Most important, be sure your title

describes as specifically as possible the
content of your research.
 Abstract
The abstract is a concise one-paragraph summary of the content and purpose of
the research report. Rules regarding word limits for an abstract differ among
scientific journals.

The abstract of an empirical study typically will identify the following:

(a) the problem under investigation;

(b) the method, including essential information about how the variables were
investigated;
(c) the major findings; and
(d) the conclusions and implications of the findings.

The abstract should highlight the critical points made in the Introduction, Method,
Results, and Discussion sections of the research report.
Tips on Writing an Abstract

The best way is to write it last.

By writing the abstract after

you have written the rest of
the report, you will be able to
paraphrase it on your own
words more easily.
 Introduction

The Introduction serves three primary objectives:

1. To introduce the problem being studied and to indicate why the

problem is important to study;
2. To summarize briefly the relevant background literature related to
the study and to describe the theoretical implications of the study;
and
3. To describe the purpose, rationale, and design of the present study
with a logical development of the predictions or hypotheses
guiding the research.
 The Introduction includes a summary of related research studies.

 In summarizing these selected studies, you should emphasize

whatever details of the earlier work.

 Of course, if you quote directly from another person’s work, you

must use quotation marks.
Tips on Writing the Introduction

 Before you begin to write, be sure

that you have articulated for
yourself.

 One of the best ways to “test”

yourself is to attempt to describe
orally to someone unfamiliar with
your work the purpose of your study,
its relation to other studies in this
area.
 Method

 Method section is the second major section of the

body of a research report .

 You will be describing the number and nature of the

participants (subjects) that took part in your study.

 The particular materials, instrumentation, or apparatus

that was used, as well as exactly how you carried out
the study (i.e., your “procedure”).
Tips on Writing the Method Section
 The key to writing a good Method section is
organization.

 The structure of this section is so consistent

across research reports that a few basic
subsections provide the pattern of
organization you need for most research
reports.

 A good rule of thumb is: Include enough

information so that an interested investigator
can replicate your study.
Structure of a Typical Paragraph in the Results
Section
1. State the purpose of the analysis.
2. Identify the descriptive statistic to be used to summarize results.
3. Present a summary of this descriptive statistic across conditions in
the text itself, in a table, or in a figure.
4. If a table or figure is used, point out the major findings on which the
reader should focus.
5. Present the reasons for, and the results of, confidence intervals,
effect sizes, and inferential statistical tests.
6. State the conclusion that follows from each test, but do not discuss
implications. These belong in the Discussion section.
 Results

 The most exciting part of a research report because the

Results section contains the climax of the research
report.

 Results section is to “stick to the facts, just the facts.”

You will have the opportunity to move beyond just the
facts when you get to the discussion section.
 Reporting Statistics

The raw data of your study (e.g., individual scores)

should not be included in the Results section. Rather,
you will want to use summary.
Tips on Writing a Good Results Section
Step 1. A Results section paragraph begins by stating the
purpose of the analysis.
Step 2. The second step in writing a Results section paragraph
is to identify the descriptive statistic (e.g., mean, median, total
frequency) that will be used to summarize the results for a
given dependent variable.
Step 3. The third step is to present a summary of this
descriptive statistic across conditions.
Step 4. A table or figure should not be considered self-
sufficient.
Step 5. The fifth step in writing a paragraph of the Results
section is to present the results of inferential statistical tests.
Concluding Step. The final step in writing a paragraph in the
Results section is to state a brief conclusion that follows from
each test you report.
 Presenting Data in Tables

 Tables are an effective and efficient means for presenting large

amounts of data in concise form.

 The table should supplement and not duplicate information in the

text of the paper, but it should be well integrated into the text.

 The tables in a research report are numbered consecutively.

 Presenting Data in Figures

 Figures, like tables, are a concise way to present large

amounts of information.

 A figure has two principal axes: the horizontal axis, or

x –axis independent variable, and the vertical axis, or
y –axis dependent variable.
 Discussion

 The Discussion section, unlike the Results section,

contains “more than just the facts.”

 The Discussion begins with a succinct statement of the

essential findings.

 Strive to be specific about what research should be

done and why it needs to be done.
Tips on Writing the Discussion Section

A brief review of the problem and your hypotheses

(expectations).
A summary of the major results supporting (or not
supporting) your hypothesis.
Comparison with findings from other researchers in
this area.
Comments on the limitations of your study (and there
are always some!).
Suggestions for future research (be specific!).
 Comments on the importance of the findings and, if
appropriate, possible practical implications.
 References

The reference section will include a list of all of the sources that you
used in your research. If you cited any piece of information anywhere
in your paper, it needs to be properly referenced in this section.
Four types of references typically are found in the majority of research
reports:
 Journal articles
 Books
 Chapters in edited books,
 Internet sources.
 Footnotes

 Footnotes are rare in journal articles and even more rare

in students’ research reports.

 When they do appear, they should numbered

consecutively in the text and placed on a separate page
following the References section.
 Appendices

 Appendices are rare in published research articles, but

they are bit common in students’ research reports.

 When they are intended for published article, each

appendix begins on separate manuscript page and they
appear at the end of the paper following the references.
 Oral Presentation

 Research psychologists regularly attend professional conferences

and conventions at which they present brief oral descriptions of
their research.

 Similarly students used oral presentations for their research either

in class or in department research symposium involving students
from different classes or undergraduate research conferences.

 10 to 15 minutes are allotted time for each presentation.

Tips on Giving an Effective Oral Presentation

 Use simple sentences

 Mark places where you might pause or refer to
visual aids.
 Put marks on pages to remind you to speak at
moderate pace and pause occasionally.
 Hit only the highlights of the presentation
 Rehears it aloud to yourself to familiarize what you
will be saying.
 Asked members of your practice audience what
they didn’t understand or want to clarified.
 Leave time for follow up questions.
 Research Proposal
 Students in this research method classes are also sometimes required
to submit proposals describing research they might do.
 It is a concise and coherent summary of your proposed research

The Proposal should include the following main section:

Introduction
Methods
Expected Results and Proposed Data Analysis Plan
References
Appendix
Information for Institutional Review Board
The Purpose of Research Proposal

 Is to ensure a workable research design that, when

implemented, will result in an interpretable
empirical finding of significant scientific merit.

 According to Murphy’s Law research learn early in

their careers.

 Murphy’s law states, “ Anything that can go wrong

will go wrong”.
Thank You