Structure and Function of cells

of Nervous system
Program: ADCP-II
By: Wajiha Ghazal
Neural Physiology
 Anatomical organization
 One system
 Two subdivisions
 CNS
 Peripheral
 Anatomical organization
 Central (CNS)
 Brain
 Spinal cord
 Function
 Integration of information
 Generation of memory
 Control of various systems
 Mental activity
 Anatomical organization
 Peripheral
 Sensory receptors
 Detection of various
sensations
 Nerves
 Conduits between sensory
receptors and CNS
 Ganglia
 Cluster of nerve cells located
outside of the spinal cord
 Plexus
 Network of neurons and axons
located outside of the CNS
 Anatomical organization
 Nerves
 Cranial
 12 pairs
 Spinal
 31 pairs
Autonomic nervous system (ANS)

 Two divisions
 Sympathetic
 Parasympathetic
 Enteric (not exactly a division of the ANS)
 Regulation of the GI tract function
 Plexuses
 Neural tissue

 Neural cell
 Generation and reception of neural signal
 Action potential
 Glial cells
 Support and protection
 Glial Cells

 Cells that insulate and support neurons

 Create the myelin sheath
 Remove waste products
 Provide nourishment
 Prevent harmful substances from entering the brain
 Glial cells within the CNS

 Functions
 Fluid secretion and composition maintenance
 CSF by ependymal cells
 Brain fluid by astrocytes
 Formation of barrier
 Blood-brain barrier by astrocytes
 Response to inflammation
 Reactive astrocytes
 Microglia
 Insulation of axon
 Myelin sheath by origodendrocytes
 Glial cells in the PNS

 Schwann cells
 Myelin sheath production
 Satellite cells
 Support and protection of the cell body
 Myelination

 Myelin sheath
 Insulation of axon
 Increased transmission speed
 Saltatory conduction from one node of Ranvier to the next
 Greater the thickness of sheath, faster the conduction
 Nerve tissue organization

 White matter
 Bundles of myelinated axons
 Neural tracts
 Propagation of action potential from one area to the next
 Neural cells and dendrites
 Gray matter
 Bundle of unmyelinated axons
 Neural cells and dendrites
 Integration and relaying of signals
 Transmission of neural signal

 Action potential
 Exactly the same principle as the AP in the muscular
system
 Propagation
 Across the entire length of the axon
 One direction
 Generation of action potential
 Unmyelinated
 Same as muscle
 Myelinated
 At node of Ranvier
 Concentrated ion channels
Saltatory conduction
 Neurons: The Messengers

 About 100 billion neurons (nerve cells) are present in

the human brain
 Neurons have many of the same features as other
cells
 Nucleus
 Cytoplasm
 Cell membrane
 What makes neurons unique is their shape and
function
 Structure of Neurons
 Dendrites
 Carry information to the cell
body from other neurons
 Cell Body (Soma)
 Contains nucleus
 Axon
 Carries information to the
next cell
 Myelin Sheath
 Insulates the axon and speeds
up the neural impulse
 Types of Neurons

 Sensory neurons
 Carry information from sensory systems to the brain
 Also referred to as afferent
 Motor neurons
 Carry information from the brain to muscles and glands
 Also referred to as efferent
 Interneurons
 Carry information between other neurons
 Classification of nerve fiber

 Basis
 Functional specialization
 Rapid transmission (motor neurons) = type A
 Homeostasis/ANS = type B and type C (unmyelinated)
 Diameter of axon
 Myelination
 Rate of action potential conduction
 Myelination
 Faster conduction
 AP generated only at node of Ranvier
 Effects of axon diameter
 Larger the diameter, faster the conduction
 Greater surface area for Na channels
 The Synapse

 Synaptic space (synaptic cleft)

 Tiny gap between neurons
 Terminal button
 Enlarged area at the end of an axon
 The synapse
 Composed of the terminal button of
one neuron, the synaptic space, and
the dendrites or cell body of the
receiving neuron
 Synapse

 Junction between two cells

 Communication
 Nerve cells
 Nerve cell and effector organs
 Presynaptic
 Send signals
 Postsynaptic
 Receive signals
 Types
 Electrical
 Rare (retina)
 Conduct signals via ion flow from one cell to the next
 Connexon
 Chemical
 Common
 Conduct signals via neurotransmitter
 Steps of neural transmission

1. Arrival of action potential to the presynaptic terminal

a. Increased flow of Ca ions
2. Release of neurotransmitter
a. Increased intracellular Ca level
3. Binding of neurotransmitters to the Na channels
a. Depolarization of postsynaptic membrane
4. Generation of local action potential
5. Propagation of action potential
The Neural Impulse
 The Neural Impulse
 Ions
 Charged molecules
 Resting Potential
 When more negative
ions are inside the
neuron than outside
 Charge is approximately -
70mV
 Neuron is not
transmitting information
 The Neural Impulse

 Polarization
 When the electrical charge of a cell moves away from
zero

 Depolarization
 When the electrical charge of a cell moves toward zero
 The Neural Impulse

 Action Potential
 Sudden, massive change
in charge in the neuron
 Occurs when
depolarization reaches
the threshold of
excitation
 Ions flow across cell
membrane
 The Neural Impulse

 Graded Potentials
 Subthreshold depolarization
 Many subthreshold de-polarizations are added together
to produce an action potential (a process known as
summation)
 The Neural Impulse

 All-or-None Law
 A neuron either fires or it does not
 When it does fire, it will always produce an impulse of
the same strength
 Intensity of a stimulus is coded by the frequency of
action potentials
 The Neural Impulse

 Absolute refractory period

 Period immediately after an
action potential when another
action potential cannot occur
 Relative refractory period
 Period following absolute
refractory period when a
neuron will only respond to a
stronger than normal impulse
 Transmission Between Neurons
 Synaptic vesicles
 Sacs in terminal button
that release chemicals
into synaptic space
 Neurotransmitters
 Chemicals released by
synaptic vesicles
 Receptor sites
 Location on receptor
neuron for specific
neurotransmitter
Communication Between Neurons

Now that you know about the basic structure of neurons and the
nature of the action potential, it is time to describe the ways in
which neurons can communicate with each other.

These communications make it possible for circuits of neurons

to gather sensory information, make plans, and initiate behaviors
via synapses.

The primary means of communication between neurons is

synaptic transmission—the transmission of messages from one
neuron to another through a synapse.
Communication Between Neurons
 postsynaptic potential
Alterations in the membrane potential of a postsynaptic neuron,
produced by liberation of neurotransmitter at the synapse.
 binding site
The location on a receptor protein to which a ligand binds.
 
 ligand (ligh gand or ligg and)
A chemical that binds with the binding site of a receptor.
 
 dendritic spine
A small bud on the surface of a dendrite, with which a terminal
button of another neuron forms a synapse.
Communication Between Neurons
Structure of Synapses

 presynaptic membrane
The membrane of a terminal button that lies adjacent to the
postsynaptic membrane and through which the neurotransmitter is
released.
 
 postsynaptic membrane
The cell membrane opposite the terminal button in a synapse;
the membrane of the cell that receives the message.
 
 synaptic cleft
The space between the presynaptic membrane and the
postsynaptic membrane.
 Communication Between Neurons

Release of Neurotransmitters

When action potentials are conducted down an axon (and down

all of its branches), something happens inside all of the terminal
buttons: Several synaptic vesicles located just inside the
presynaptic membrane fuse with the membrane and then break
open, spilling their contents into the synaptic cleft.
Communication Between Neurons
Activation of Receptors

 postsynaptic receptor
A receptor molecule in the postsynaptic membrane of a synapse
that contains a binding site for a neurotransmitter.
 neurotransmitter-dependent ion channel
An ion channel that opens when a molecule of a
neurotransmitter binds with a postsynaptic receptor.
 ionotropic receptor (eye on oh trow pik)
A receptor that contains a binding site for a neurotransmitter and
an ion channel that opens when a molecule of the neurotransmitter
attaches to the binding site.
Communication Between Neurons

Activation of Receptors

 metabotropic receptor (meh tab oh trow pik)

A receptor that contains a binding site for a neurotransmitter;
activates an enzyme that begins a series of events that opens an ion
channel elsewhere in the membrane of the cell when a molecule of
the neurotransmitter attaches to the binding site.
 
 G protein
A protein coupled to a metabotropic receptor; conveys
messages to other molecules when a ligand binds with and
activates the receptor.
Communication Between Neurons

Postsynaptic Potentials

 Postsynaptic potentials can be either depolarizing

(excitatory) or hyperpolarizing (inhibitory).

 What determines the nature of the postsynaptic potential at

a particular synapse is not the neurotransmitter itself.

 Instead, it is determined by the characteristics of the

postsynaptic receptors—in particular, by the particular
type of ion channel they open.
Communication Between Neurons

Postsynaptic Potentials

At many synapses inhibitory neurotransmitters open the chloride

channels instead of (or in addition to) potassium channels.

The effect of opening chloride channels depends on the membrane

potential of the neuron.
Termination of Postsynaptic Potentials

Postsynaptic potentials are brief depolarizations or

hyperpolarizations caused by the activation of postsynaptic
receptors with molecules of a neurotransmitter.

They are kept brief by two mechanisms: reuptake and enzymatic

deactivation.
Termination of Postsynaptic Potentials

 reuptake
The reentry of a neurotransmitter just liberated by a terminal
button back through its membrane, thus terminating the
postsynaptic potential.

 enzymatic deactivation
The destruction of a neurotransmitter by an enzyme after its
release—for example, the destruction of acetylcholine by
acetylcholinesterase.
Termination of Postsynaptic Potentials

 acetylcholine (ACh) (a see tul koh leen)

A neurotransmitter found in the brain, spinal cord, and parts of
the peripheral nervous system; responsible for muscular contraction.
 
 acetylcholinesterase (AChE) (a see tul koh lin ess ter ace)
The enzyme that destroys acetylcholine soon after it is liberated
by the terminal buttons, thus terminating the postsynaptic potential.
 Neural Plasticity

 The brain can be changed, both structurally and

chemically, by experience
 Rat studies show that an “enriched” environment
leads to larger neurons with more connections
 Has also been shown in humans
 Recent research has uncovered evidence of
neurogenesis, or the production of new brain cells, in
human brains