CS8492 – Database Management

Systems
II Year / IV Semester
UNIT II DATABASE DESIGN

Entity-Relationship model – E-R Diagrams –

Enhanced-ER Model – ER-to-Relational mapping –
Functional Dependencies – Non-loss Decomposition –
First, Second, Third Normal Forms, Dependency
Preservation – Boyce/Codd Normal Form – Multi-
valued Dependencies and Fourth Normal Form – Join
Dependencies and Fifth Normal Form
 Entity-Relationship model

a model for identifying entities to be

represented in the database and representation
of how those entities are related.
 Entity-Relationship model

 Design Phases - Requirement Analysis:

 to understand what data need to be stored in the
database, what applications must be built, what are
all those operations that are frequently used by the
system.
 requires proper communication with user groups.
 Entity-Relationship model

 Design Phases – Conceptual database design:

 E-R Model is built.
 a high level model used in database design.
 to create a simple description of data that matches
with the requirements of users.
 Entity-Relationship model

 Design Phases – Logical database design:

 ER model is converted to relational database
schema.

 Design Phases – Schema refinement:

 to identify the potential problems and to refine it.
 normalizing and restructuring the relations.
 Entity-Relationship model

 Design Phases – Physical database design:

 building indexes on tables and clustering tables,
redesigning some parts of schema obtained from
earlier design steps.
 Entity-Relationship model

 Design Phases – Application and Security Design:

 UML – design of the database can be accomplished.

 the role of each entity in every process must be

reflected in the application task.
 some access rules must be enforced on the application
to protect the security features.
 Entity-Relationship model

 provides a means for representing

relationships between entities.
 It is an aid for database design.
 It is easy to visualize and understand.
 ER Model - Concepts
 Entity Sets:

 Entity: a “thing” or “object” in the real world that is

distinguishable from all other objects.
 Example: a particular person, car, house, etc.

 An entity has set of properties, and the values for some set of
properties may uniquely identify an entity.
 An entity set is a collection of entities having the same properties
 ER Model - Concepts

 Attributes:
 The properties that describe an entity are called
attributes.
 In the customer entity customer id, name, street
are the attributes
 ER Model - Concepts

 Attributes – Types:

 Simple attribute:
 An attribute that cannot be divided into further
subparts (atomic).
 Example: Customer-id of customer entity
 ER Model - Concepts

 Attributes – Types:

 Composite attribute:
 An attribute that can be divided into a set of
Employee
subparts.

Salary
Name Address

Number Street City

 ER Model - Concepts

 Attributes – Types:

 Single value attribute:

 An attribute having only one value in a particular
entity.
 ER Model - Concepts

 Attributes – Types:

 Multi-valued attribute:
 An attribute having more than one value for a
Employee
particular entity.

Degrees
Name Address

Number Street City

 ER Model - Concepts

 Attributes – Types:

 Derived attribute:
 An attribute that is derived from other related
Employee
attributes or entities.

Age
Birthdate Address

Number Street City

 ER Model - Concepts

 Relationship set:
 an association among several entities.
 a set of relationships of the same type.

Customer Borrower Loan

 ER Model

 Mapping Cardinality:
 the number of entities to which another entity can
be associated via a relationship set.
 For a binary relationship set R between entity sets
A and B
 ER Model
 Mapping Cardinality - One-to-one (1 : 1)
 An entity in A is associated with at most one entity in B, and
an entity in B is associated with at most one entity in A.

 One-to-many (1 : M)
 An entity in A is associated with any number of entities in
B. An entity in B can be associated with at most one entity in
A.
 ER Model
 Mapping Cardinality - Many-to-Many (M : N)
 An entity in A is associated with any number of entities in B,
and an entity in B is associated with any number of entities in
A.

 Many to one (M : 1)
 An entity in A is associated with at most one entity in B. An
entity in B can be associated with any number of entities in A.
 ER Model

 Ternary relation:
 If a relationship connects three entities.
 Entities: Product, Supplier and customer
 Relationship: buy
 ER Model

Weak Entity Set:

 Entity types that do not have key attributes of
their own are called weak entity types.

 Strong Entity Set:

 Entity types that have key attributes of their own
are called strong entity types
 Components of ER Diagram
Component Description Symbol

Entity Rectangle

Relationship Diamond

Attributes for
any Entity Ellipse 

the attribute
Key Attribute
name inside
for any Entity
the Ellipse is
underlined.
 Components of ER Diagram

Component Description Symbol

dotted
Derived
ellipse is
Attribute for
created
any Entity
inside the
main ellipse

Multivalued
Attribute for Double
any Entity Ellipse
 ER Diagram - Entity

Component Example Symbol

Employee,
Entity Manager,
Department

depends on
Weak Entity
another
entity
 ER Diagram - Attribute
Component Description Symbol

Attribute
property or
(Name, Age, 
characteristic
Address)
of an entity

main
Key Attribute
characterstic
of an Entity

Composite
have their
Attribute
own attributes
 ER Diagram - Relationship
Component Description Symbol

one student can enroll

One to One
only for one course and
Relationship
a course will also have
only one Student

One to Many
1 student can opt for
Relationship
many courses

Student enrolls for only

Many to One
one Course but a
Relationship
Course can have many
Students
 ER Diagram - Relationship
Component Description Symbol

one student can enroll

Many to Many for more than one
Relationship courses. And a course
can have more than 1
student enrolled in it
ER Model
 Enhanced ER Model
Specialization and Generalization -
 The process of making subclass from a general concept –
specialization.(top – down process)
 The process of making superclass from subclass – Generalization.
(bottom up process)
 Superclass: An entity type that represents a general concept at a
high level
 Subclass: An entity type that represents a specific concept at a low
levels
 Enhanced ER Model

 Disjoint and Overlapping

Hierarchy and Lattice Structure

Total and partial participation

 Normalization

“Good Database”
 Normalization

 Modification Anomalies
Ex: (Empid,Empname,Projectid,Projectname)
 Update Anomalies: If any changes in Projectname , it
changes to empid,empname in the relation.
 Insertion Anomalies: If Projectid is NULL.
 Deletion Anomalies: If delete projectid,projecctname
is deleted, then it has NULL values
 Normalization

 Decomposition
 the process of breaking down one table into
multiple tables. ID Name Age
1 A 20
2 A 21

ID Name Name Age

1 A A 20
2 A A 21
 Normalization

 Decomposition – Lossy:
ID Name Name Age
1 A A 20
2 A A 21

ID Name Age
1 A 20
1 A 21
2 A 20
2 A 21
 Concept of Relational Database Design

 to generate a set of relation schema that allows us to

store information without unnecessary redundancy
 to allows us to retrieve information easily.
 For checking the normal form of the schema, it is
necessary to check the functional dependencies and
other data dependencies that exists within the schema.
 FUNCTIONAL DEPENDENCY
 It requires that the value for a certain set of attributes determines
uniquely the value for another set of attributes.
 In a given relation R, X and Y are attributes. Attributes Y is
functionally dependent on attribute X if each value of X
determines exactly one value of Y, which is represented as

XY

X  Y does not imply Y  X

Marks  Grade, Reg.No  Name

 FUNCTIONAL DEPENDENCY

 Armstrong’s Axioms:
 Reflection: if X ⸧ Y, then X  Y

 Augmentation: if X  Y, then XZ  YZ, for any Z

 Transitivity: if X  Y and Y  Z, then X  Z

 Decomposition: If X  YZ, then X  Y and X  Z

 Union: If X  Y and X  Z, then X  YZ

 Pseudotransitivity: If X  Y and WY  Z, then WX  Z

 FUNCTIONAL DEPENDENCY

Closure Dependencies:
 F – Functional Dependencies
 F+ - Closure Functional Dependencies
 X – Attributes of F
 X+ - Attributes of F +
 F covers G, if G+ ⸦ F+
 F and G are equivalent if F+ = G+
 FUNCTIONAL DEPENDENCY

Minimal Cover – a set of F of FD is a set of G

of FD such that:
 Every dependencies in G is of the form X -> A,
where a is a single attribute.
 The closure F+ is equal to the closure G+.
 FUNCTIONAL DEPENDENCY

 Types:
 Full functional dependency
 Partial functional dependency
 Transitive functional dependency
 FUNCTIONAL DEPENDENCY
 Types - Full functional dependency

 In a relation R, X and Y are attributes. X functionally determines

Y. Subset of X should not functionally determine Y.
 Marks cannot be determined either by student_no or course_no
alone. It can be determined only using student_no and course_no
together.
 Marks is fully functionally dependent on {student_no, course_no}
 RegisterNo. -> Name
 FUNCTIONAL DEPENDENCY
 Types - Partial functional dependency
 Attribute Y is partially dependent on the attribute X only
if it is dependent on a subset of attribute X.
 For example course_name, Instructor_name are partially
dependent on composite attributes {student_no,
course_no} because course_no alone defines course_name,
Instructor_name.
 (RegisterNo., Gender) -> Name
 FUNCTIONAL DEPENDENCY

 Types - Transitive Dependencies functional

dependency
 X, Y and Z are 3 attributes in the relation R.
X -> Y, Y -> Z, X -> Z
 For example, grade depends on marks and in turn make
depends on {student_no course_no}, hence Grade depends
fully transitively on {student_no & course_no}.
 FUNCTIONAL DEPENDENCY

 Types - Transitive Dependencies functional

dependency
 X, Y and Z are 3 attributes in the relation R.
X -> Y, Y -> Z, X -> Z
 RegisterNo. -> Deptid
 Deptid -> HoD
RegisterNo. -> HoD
 FUNCTIONAL DEPENDENCY

 Uses:

 Test relations to see if they are legal under a

given set of functional dependencies.
 Specify constraints on the set of legal relations
 A specific instance of a relation schema must satisfy a
functional dependency even if the functional
dependency does not hold on all legal instances.
 NORMALIZATION
    a process of organizing the data in database to

avoid data redundancy

 Forms:

 First normal form(1NF)

 Second normal form(2NF)

 Third normal form(3NF)

 Boyce & Codd normal form (BCNF)

 NORMALIZATION
  First normal form(1NF) :
an attribute (column) of a table cannot hold multiple
values. It should hold only atomic values.

emp_id emp_name emp_address emp_mobile

101 Herschel New Delhi 8912312390
8812121212
102 Jon Kanpur
9900012222
103 Ron Chennai 7778881212
9990000123
104 Lester Bangalore
8123450987
 NORMALIZATION
  First normal form(1NF) :
each attribute of a table must have atomic (single)
values.
emp_id emp_name emp_address emp_mobile

101 Herschel New Delhi 8912312390

102 Jon Kanpur 8812121212

102 Jon Kanpur 9900012222

103 Ron Chennai 7778881212

104 Lester Bangalore 9990000123

104 Lester Bangalore 8123450987

 NORMALIZATION
 Prime Attribute:
 Member of some candidate Key.
 Example: RegisterNo.
 Non-prime Attribute:
 not a member of any candidate key
 NORMALIZATION
  Second normal form(1NF) : A table is said to be
in 2NF if both the following conditions hold:
Table is in 1NF (First normal form)

All the non-key columns are dependent on the table’s

primary key.
 NORMALIZATION – 2NF
teacher_id subject teacher_age
  111 Maths 38
111 Physics 38
222 Biology 38
333 Physics 40
333 Chemistry 40

Candidate Keys: {teacher_id, subject}

Non prime attribute: teacher_age

 NORMALIZATION – 2NF
teacher_id subject teacher_age

  111 Maths 38
111 Physics 38
222 Biology 38
333 Physics 40
333 Chemistry 40
The table is in first normal form and all the columns depend on the
table’s primary key.

teacher_id subject
111 Maths
teacher_id teacher_age
111 Physics
111 38
222 Biology
222 38
333 Physics
333 40
333 Chemistry
 NORMALIZATION
 Third normal form 3NF: 
 A table design is said to be in 3NF if both the following
conditions hold:
 Table must be in 2NF
 Transitive functional dependency of non-prime attribute on any
super key should be removed.
OR
Every non prime attribute
 fully FD on every key, and
 non transitively FD on every key
 NORMALIZATION
sid sname zipcode cityname state

1 AAA 111111 Chennai Tamilnadu

2 BBB 222222 Pune Maharastra

3 CCC 333333 Jaipur Rajasthan

4 DDD 444444 Trichy Tamilnadu

5 EEE 555555 Mumbai Maharastra

sid -> sname

sid-> zipcode
zipcode->cityname
cityname->state
 NORMALIZATION
– After 3NF
– The table divided as the below

Student zip
sid sname zipcode zipcode cityname state

1 AAA 111111 111111 Chennai Tamilnadu

2 BBB 222222 222222 Pune Maharastra

3 CCC 333333 333333 Jaipur Rajasthan

4 DDD 444444 444444 Trichy Tamilnadu

5 EEE 555555 555555 Mumbai Maharastra

 NORMALIZATION
 Boyce Codd Normal Form  
it is in 3NF and for every functional dependency 
X->Y, X should be the super key of the table.

sid course teacher

1 C Aruna
2 Java Kani

3 C Aruna

4 C++ Anjana

5 C Vani
(sid,course)->teacher
teacher->course
 Student Course

sid teacher teacher course

1 Aruna Aruna C
2 Kani Kani Java

3 Aruna Aruna C

4 Anjana Anjana C++

5 Vani Vani C
 ER to Relational Mapping

 Mapping of Entity Set to Relationship:

 Each attribute of entity set becomes an attribute of
the table.
 The primary key attribute of entity set becomes an
entity of the table.
 ER Diagram into Relation Model
 ER to Relational Mapping

 Mapping of Entity Set to Relationship:

 create table employee (Empid char(11),Ename
char(30),salary int,primary key(Empid))
 ER to Relational Mapping
 Mapping Relationship sets(without constraints) to tables:
 Create a table for the relationship set.
 Add all primary keys of the participating entity sets as fields
of the table.
 Add a field for each attribute of the relationship
 Declare a primary key using all key fields from the entity sets.
 ER to Relational Mapping

 Mapping Relationship sets(without

constraints) to tables:
 Employee works for department.
 where empid and deptid are primary key
 ER to Relational Mapping

 Mapping Relationship sets(without constraints) to

tables:
Create table works_In(Empid char(10), Deptid char(10),
ename char(10), salary int,Deptname char(20), primary
key(empid,deptid), foreign key(empid) references
Employee, foreign key(deptid) references department)
 ER to Relational Mapping

 Mapping Relationship sets(with constraints) to tables:

 Employee manages departments:

 relation with Manages- Approach 1

 Create table manages(Empid char(10), Deptid char(10),since
date, primary key(deptid), foreign key(empid) references
Employee, foreign key(deptid) references department)
 ER to Relational Mapping

 Mapping Relationship sets(with constraints) to tables:

 Employee manages departments:

 relation with Manages- Approach 2

 Create table dep_mgr(Deptid int, Dname char(20), budget
REAL, empid int,since date, primary key(deptid), foreign
key(empid) references Employee)
 ER to Relational Mapping

 Mapping weak entity sets to relational

mapping;
 create table Department(Deptid int, Deptname
char(20), Roomno int, primary key
(deptid,roomno), foreign key(roomno)
references roomno)
 Multivalued Dependencies
 Conditions:
 A -> B, if for a single value of A, multiple values of B exists,
then table may have multi-values dependency.
 a table have at-least 3 columns for it to have a multi-valued
dependency.
 For a relation R(A,B,C), if there is a multi-valued dependency
between, A and B, then B and C should independent of each
other.
 Multivalued Dependencies

 Example:
Sid Course Skill

C English
1
C++ German

English
2 Java
French

Sid ->> Course

Sid ->> Skill
 Multivalued Dependencies

 Example:
Sid Course Skill
1 C English

1 C++ German

1 C German

1 C++ English

2 Java English

2 Java French
 Fourth Normal Form

 Conditions:
 It should be in the Boyce-Codd normal Form.
 the table should not have any multi-valued
dependency.
 Fourth Normal Form

 Student Table:
Sid Course Skill
1 C English

1 C++ German

1 C German

1 C++ English

2 Java English

2 Java French
 Fourth Normal Form
Sid Course
 Student_Course Table: 1 C
1 C++
2 Java

 Student_Skill Table: Sid Skill

1 English
1 German
2 English
2 French
 Join Dependencies
 If the join of R1 and R2 over C is equal to relation R, then
we can say that a Join Dependency(JD) exists.
 where R1 and R2 are the decompositions R1(A,B,C) and
R2(C,D) of a given relations R(A,B,C,D).
 R1 and R2 are a lossless decomposition of R.

 the *(A,B,C,D),(C,D) will be a JD of R if the join of

join’s attribute is equal to the relation R.
 Fifth Normal Form

 It is in 4th Normal Form

 If we can decompose table further to eliminate

redundancy and anomalies and when we rejoin
the table we should not be losing the original data
or get a new record(Join Dependency Principle)
 also called as Project Join Normal Form(PJNF).
 SUPPLIER-> CUSTOMER
PRODUCT-> CUSTOMER
SUPPLIER-> PRODUCT

SUPPLIER CUSTOMER PRODUCT

A 111 laptop
B 222 Pen-drive
B 333 memory card
B 444 CD
C 555 DVD
C 666 floppy
• DECOMPOSE THE TABLE INTO 3.