Genetics

Introduction
Punnett Square – 1 Trait
Punnett Square – 2 Traits
Product Rule
 Introduction
 Information that will guide the development of an
organism is contained in that organism’s DNA.
Every species has a characteristic number of DNA
molecules called chromosomes.
 Introduction (2)

 Anindividual receives one complete set of

chromosomes from each parent, resulting in two
complete sets. This is the diploid condition (2n).
 Chromosomes
 Chromosomes occur in
pairs called
homologous
chromosomes.
 One from each parent.
 Genes are the functional unit of
heredity
 Chromosomes are made
up of genes that code for
traits.
 A gene is found at a
specific location or locus
on a chromosome.
 Genes & Alleles
 Different versions of genes are called alleles.
 Purple flowers vs. white in pea plants
 Gene = flower color, allele = white or purple
 Alleles
 There can be any number of alleles for a given
gene, although an individual can have only two
alleles(one on each homologous chromosome).
 A, B, O blood type in humans
 Polygenic Traits
 Some traits are controlled by just one gene, others
are influenced by many genes (polygenic).
 Height in humans
 Question 1

A, B and O are _______ of the

human blood type __________.
 Genes, genes
 Genes, alleles
 Alleles, genes
 Alleles, alleles
 Question 1

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 That is incorrect.
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 Question 1

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 You are correct!
 Homozygous & Heterozygous
 Since an individual has two sets of chromosomes,
it will have two copies of each gene (one
originally coming from each parent). These two
copies may be the same allele, or they may be
different.
 Homozygous – both alleles are the same.
 Heterozygous – two different alleles.
 Question 2

Which of the following represents

the homozygous condition?
 AA
 Aa
 aa
 Both AA and aa
 Question 2

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 That is incorrect – be sure your
answer is complete.
 Try again!
 Question 2

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 You are correct!
 Dominant & Recessive
A trait is dominant if it is expressed in an individual
with one or two copies of the allele:
 Purple flower color in peas: P= purple p= white.
 The dominant allele is represented by a capitol letter,
recessive by the lower case letter.
 PP – homozygous dominant – two copies of the
dominant (purple) allele.
 Pp – heterozygous – one purple allele, one white allele
(flowers appear purple).
 Recessive
 The trait is said to be recessive if it is necessary
for an individual to have two copies of the allele in
order to express the trait.
 pp – two white flower alleles (homozygous).
 Question 3

Purple flower color in peas is

dominant over white. Which of the
following pairs of alleles would give
purple flowers?
 PP
 Pp
 pp
 Both PP and Pp
 Question 3

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 That is incorrect.
 Try again!
 Question 3

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 You are correct!
 Question 4

Now, which of the following

pairs of alleles would give white
flowers?
 PP
 Pp
 pp
 Both PP and Pp
 Question 4

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 That is incorrect.
 Try again!
 Question 4

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 You are correct!
 Genotype
 Genotype refers to the alleles that are actually
present.
 PP, Pp, pp in our flower color example.
 The purple phenotype may have PP or Pp genotype.

Back to question 5
 Phenotype
 Phenotype refers to the visible or expressed
characteristics of the trait.
 What does it look like?
 Purple or white for our flower color example.

Back to question 8
 Heredity – Passing on Traits
 An individual can pass on genetic information to
its offspring. In order to avoid doubling the
number of chromosomes in each generation, cells
must be created that carry only one set of
chromosomes (haploid or 1n).
 An individual can pass along either of the two alleles
it carries for a trait, but not both.
A Pp individual can pass on either P or p.
 Thesehaploid cells (eggs or sperm) are formed
during meiosis.
 Meiosis
 Meiosis is a type of cell
division that occurs in two
parts.
 Before division starts, each
chromosome makes a copy
of itself. These identical
copies (called sister
chromatids) remain
connected at the
centromere.
 Meiosis (2)

 Inthe first part of meiosis, homologous

chromosomes are separated.
 The cells are now haploid.
 Duringthe second part of meiosis, the sister
chromatids are pulled apart.
 This part is like regular cell division (mitosis).
 The division of one diploid cell will result in 4
haploid cells.
 Each cell is different.
 Heredity
 We can look at how traits are passed from one
generation to another individually or two at a time
using a Punnett square.
 Heredity (2)

 Forour example, we will use the ball python.

There are many mutations that breeders want to
incorporate into their animals.
 Albino – a simple recessive trait
 Pinstripe – a dominant pattern mutation
 Punnett Square – 1 Trait
 Firstlet’s focus on the
albino trait. It is
recessive so:
 AA & Aa individuals
will have normal
coloration.
 aa individuals will be
albino.
 Monohybrid Cross
 In a monohybrid cross we will cross two animals
that are heterozygous for albino.
 Aa x Aa
 We want to know, statistically, what kind of
offspring to expect.
 Each parent can donate only one allele for the albino
gene.
A heterozygote (Aa) can donate either an A or an a –
not both.
 An albino must receive an a from both parents.
 Punnett Square – 1 Trait
Example
 Place the alleles that
may be donated by
each parent across the
top and along the
sides.
 Fill in the boxes:
 1AA - normal
 2Aa – normal,
heterozygous for
albino
 1aa - albino

Back to question 8
 Question 5

Which is the genotype?

 Normal or albino
 AA, Aa, or aa
 Both are considered to be the genoty
pe.
 Neither of these is the genotype.
 Question 5

Sorry!
 That is incorrect.
 Find information on genotype.
 Try again!
 Question 5

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 You are correct!
 Let’s try another example!
 Ifwe have a male that is heterozygous for albino
and an albino female, what kind of offspring do
we get?

X
 Question 6

What is the genotype of this pairing?

 Aa x Aa
 AA x aa
 Aa x aa
 aa x aa
 Question 6

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 That is incorrect.
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 Question 6

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 You are correct!
 Question 7

Which of these Punnett squares is

correct?
 Question 7

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 That is incorrect.
 Try again!
 Question 7

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 You are correct!
 Question 8

What are the phenotypes of the

offspring?
 All normal appearing offspring
 All albino offspring
 3:1 normal to albino
 2:2 normal to albino
 Question 8

Sorry!
 That is incorrect.
 Review Phenotype
 Review Punnett squares
 Try again!
 Question 8

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 You are correct!
 Punnett Square – 2 Traits
 We can also use the Punnett square to track two
traits at once.
 Remember each gamete (egg or sperm) will
contain one allele for each trait.
 So, the possible combinations of alleles that we will
place on our Punnett squares will always have one
letter for each trait.
 Dihybrid Cross
 In a dihybrid cross, both animals are
heterozygous for two traits – here, albino
(recessive) and pinstripe (dominant).
 AaPp x AaPp
 The parents will have normal coloration (Aa) and
they will be Pinstripes (Pp).
 Punnett Square – 2 Traits
Example
 Again, we want to know, statistically, what kind of
offspring to expect.
 Each parent (AaPp) will donate either an A or an
a allele for the albino gene and either a P or a p
allele for the pinstripe gene.
 So every gamete will always contain ONE A(or a) and
one P(or p).
 FOIL
 We can use the FOIL method from math to be sure
that we have all of the possible combinations of
alleles.
 First, Outer, Inner, Last
 Punnett Square – 2 Traits
Example (2)

 Next, we fill in each square. By convention, we

put the alleles for one gene together followed by
the second:
 Aapp not Apap
 Also, any dominant alleles are placed before
recessives.
 AaPp not aApP
 Genotypes from Dihybrid Cross
 The Punnett square
gives us the genotypes
that result from the
cross.
 Phenotypes from Dihybrid Cross
 The phenotypes would be:
 9 Pinstripe (A_P_)
 3 Normal (A_pp)
 3 Albino pinstripe (aaP_)
 1 Albino (aapp)
 Albino is a recessive trait,
while pinstripe is a dominant
trait.

 The9:3:3:1 phenotypic ratio is characteristic of a

dihybrid cross.
 Question 9

Which of the following Punnett

squares is correct for this cross:
AaPp x aapp
 Question 9

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 That is incorrect.
 Try again!
 Question 9

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 You are correct!
 Question 10

What is the ratio of phenotypes that

would result from the cross? AaPp x
aapp
9 normal: 3 albino: 3 pinstripe:
1albino pinstripe
 4 pinstripe: 4 normal: 4 albino
pinstripe: 4 albino
 All albino pinstripe
 AaPp: 4 Aapp: 4 aaPp: 4 aapp
 Question 10

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 That is incorrect.
 Try again!
 Question 10

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 You are correct!
 The Product Rule
 Punnett squares are very useful for tracking one or
two traits, but they can become unwieldy when
looking at more than two traits.
 The product rule is a simple way to determine the
likelihood of getting a particular result from any
cross, regardless of the number of traits involved.
 The Product Rule (2)

 To use the product rule, we determine the

likelihood of getting each trait individually, then
multiply those probabilities together.
 We’ll use our dihybrid cross example to start with.
 AaPp x AaPp
 The Product Rule (3)

 We need to look at the traits separately:

 Aa x Aa
 There would be a 1 in 4 chance of hatching an albino
from this cross.
 Pp x Pp
 Pinstripe is dominant so ¾ of the offspring will be
pinstripes.
 What is the chance of getting an albino pinstripe
from this cross?
¼ x ¾ = 3/16
 This is the same result that we got using the Punnett
square.
 The Product Rule (4)

 We can look at as many traits as we want using the

product rule.
 Say we are interested in combining these 4 traits:
 Pinstripe (dominant) – (PP, Pp, pp)
 Albino (recessive) – (AA, Aa, aa)
 Piebald (recessive) – (BB, Bb, bb)
 Hypo (recessive) – (HH, Hh, hh)
 The Product Rule (5)

 The parents have the following genotypes:

 AaPpBbhh x aappBbHh
 Calculate probability of getting individual traits:
 Albino – Aa x aa = ½
 Pinstripe – Pp x pp = ½
 Piebald – Bb x Bb = ¼
 Hypo – hh x Hh = ½
 ½ x ½ x ¼ x ½ = 1/32 = chance of getting an animal that
shows all 4 traits from this pairing.
 Question 11

What is the probability of getting a

hypo albino piebald animal from
these parents: AaBbhh x Aabbhh
 Remember, albino, piebald, and hypo are all
recessive traits.
 ½
 ¼
 1/8
 1/16
 Question 11

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 That is incorrect.
 Try again!
 Question 11

Congratulations!
 You are correct!