Queens’ College

WELCOME TO:
BUSINESS RESEARCH METHODS &
TECHNIQUES
Credit hours: 2
 Course Chapters
1. Chapter One: Research Introduction
2. Chapter Two-Research proposal and Research
Process
3. Chapter Three-Sampling and Sample Design
4. Chapter Four-Data Collection
5. Chapter Five-Data Analysis Methods
6. Chapter Six-What statistical analysis should We use?
 CHAPTER ONE:
RESEARCH INTRODUCTION
 1.1 Definitions of Research
 The word research is composed of two syllabuses, re
and search. The dictionary defines the former as a
prefix meaning again, anew or over again and the
latter as a verb meaning to examine closely and
carefully, to test and try or to probe
Research is a structured investigation that utilizes
acceptable scientific methodology to solve problems
and creates new knowledge that is generally
applicable.
research is a process for collecting, analyzing and
interpreting information to answer questions.
Research is:
A systematic investigation to find answers to a
problem.
 Research is a systematic, controlled empirical and
critical investigation of propositions about the
presumed relationships about various phenomena.
 Research is a scientific and systematic search for
pertinent information and knowledge on a specific
topic.
 Research is a movement from the unknown to the
known
 1.2. OBJECTIVES OF
RESEARCH
1. To gain familiarity with a phenomenon (exploratory or
formulative research studies);
2. To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular
individual, situation or a group (descriptive research studies);
3. To determine the frequency with which something occurs
(diagnostic research
studies);
4. To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between variables
(hypothesis-testing research studies).
 1.3. MOTIVATION IN RESEARCH
What makes people to undertake research?
1. Desire to get a research degree along with its consequential benefits;
2. Desire to face the challenge in solving the unsolved problems,
3. Desire to get intellectual joy of doing some creative work;
4. Desire to serve the society;
5. Desire to get respectability.
 1.4.Reasons to Conduct research

• Students need to know research methods for two

basic reasons;
– To write an assignment of appropriate
standard- academic role/ methodology
oriented/
– To carryout research to answer vital questions
for the business you are in-management role /
finding oriented/
 1.5. Research methods vs Research
methodology
 Research methods refer to all those methods/techniques
that are used for conduction of research
-research methods can be put into the following three
groups:
1. Methods which are concerned with the collection of
data.;
2. Statistical techniques which are used for establishing
relationships between the data
3. Methods which are used to evaluate the
accuracy of the results obtained.
 Conti…
 Research methodology
Research methodology is a way to systematically solve the
research problem.
 A science of studying how research is done scientifically.
The strategy one chooses to answer research questions
It is the various steps that are generally adopted by a
researcher in studying his research problem
 Research method is a part of Research methodology
 1.7. What might be special about
business research?
• Business research is not a single pure academic
discipline like chemistry.(multi disciplinary)
• This is evident from the fact that the term business is
an umbrella for many different things and involves
a number of different academic disciplines such as
• Mathematics
• Psychology
• Economics
• Politics
• History
 Conti…
• Business Researches are conducted at
different levels
– Prediction
As in the case of regression analysis and trend
analysis
– Fact finding
what happened? (study on frequency and
characteristics)
- Relation/Correlation studies
Impact analysis, correlation, Role analysis
1.10. What kind of bus. problems need a research study?

• Business research involve both Theoretical or concept

and purely practical questions
• For example(practical)
– How does the product range compare in terms of
contribution to profit?
– Which method of training has produced more
output- coaching or a group training course?
• Example (theoretical)
– What are the most effective ways of introducing a
new employee to the organization?
 Conti…
• When choosing an area of research we start either
deductive or inductive
• From broad area of management like
• Marketing management
• Operations management
• Financial management
• Human resources management
OR
• From a very practical questions such as
» How does the product range compare in
terms of contribution to profit?
 1.11. Modes of knowledge
• Gibson et al (1994) provided two modes of knowledge that
is created through business research;
– “Mode 1 knowledge” is a knowledge created by an
academics for an academic purpose to further and add to
what is known- it has to do with basic research e.g. the
concept of economies of scale
– “Mode 2 knowledge” is practical applied knowledge and
comes from collaborating with practitioners or policy makers
– “Mode 3 knowledge” as suggested by Huff & Huff (2001) is
a knowledge that is neither produced specifically for
academic purpose nor for direct application to practical need
but for understanding the bigger picture in relation to
society’s survival and the common good
 1.12. Issue we need to understand in research
method
• Research is messy activity
• Regarding the logical progression in research
• Formulating the research topic & critically reviewing
relevant literature (when should they be done)

• The researcher affects the result of research

• Basically research has to be objective but there is a need to
recognize the fact that there is always human element in
research so long as we are not conducting the research
using machines
1.13. How does literature relate to research?

Any research study, inductive or deductive

undertaken for academic purpose always require
a review of relevant literature
The review must be critical and related, but
not just a description of what others said
Anyone can ask a few people to fill in a
questionnaire, but not everyone can make sense
of the answers!
 What kind of literature should we search for?
• Primary literature sources
• Are least accessible, Company literature, Unpublished research,
Private correspondence, Conference proceedings
• Secondary literature sources
• Are much more easily accessible
• Include published books and articles in journals, news media,
published business, government and international body
publications
• For academic research peer-reviewed journals are considered
more reliable sources of literature as the materials are
monitored by experts in the field
• Tertiary literature sources
• Gateways to secondary sources
• They include encyclopedias, dictionaries, citations, indexes,
catalogues and web based portals, journal’s contents, data bases
 Conti…

Basically , literatures can be:

A), Theories, concepts, principles
B), Empirical findings
Any Questions?
 Chapter Two

Research proposal and

Research Process
 2.1. Differing perspectives of research
that underpin research design

In any research be it physical science, life

science or the social science
The research process begins with an
interesting thought about the world around us.
Research through its final result must add
something of value to the body theoretical
knowledge.
 Choice of research design or strategy
Research design-is a grand plan of approach to a research topic
It takes quite a lot of work and reading as well as simply
understanding your views as a researcher
There will be no one right way of conducting business
research, it depends on
 The topic
 The audience for research
 Time & other resources available
 The kind of study considered to be appropriate for the topic
 Access to information & people
 2.2. Reliability and Validity in the context of business
research

A. Reliability
- It is another term for consistency or repeatability
over time.
 It entails that the research be auditable i.e.
readers should be able to get the same response
following the same method
 But here shouldn’t forget the concepts of
participant error, participant bias, observer error
and bias
 Cont’d
B. Validity
What is validity? –soundness/ dependability
validity can be characterized in three ways
Face validity
 Can a layman see the Reason method as a valid method of studying this
question? E.g. why do you want to know that?/ reason validity
Construct validity
 Can the method measure what you think it measures? (distance from
school vs access to school) do examinations test knowledge? Is the
measurement validity strong?
Internal validity
 Refers to causality i.e. does factor X cause factor Y to happen? Does
strong motivation lead to effective team work?
 Other types of validity

External validity – refers to generalizability

Is it universally acceptable
 2.3. The Research Proposal
 The research proposal is a systematic plan, which
brings to focus the preliminary planning that will
be needed to accomplish the purpose of the
proposed study.
Importance of Research Proposal:
 It serves as a basis for determining the feasibility
of the project.
 It gives the research supervisor a basis for guiding
the researcher while conducting the study.
 It reduces the probability of costly mistakes.
 The Research Proposal…
Components of the Research Proposal
1. The Title
2. Introduction
◦ Background information
◦ Statement of the problem
◦ Research objectives and
◦ Research questions
◦ Significance of the study
◦ Scope and Delimitations of the Study
3. Review of Related Literature
 Conceptual definitions
 Empirical findings
 Conceptual framework and conclusion
 The Research Proposal…
4. Research design and Methods
a) Variables and data sources
b) Type of data (primary or secondary or both) and
methodology of data collection
c) Procedures for determination of sample size and
collecting Data
d) Methods of Data Analysis
5. Bibliography/References
6. Time Schedule
7. Budget Schedule
 Components of the Research Proposal…

1. The Title
it should give sufficient information about the
nature of study
The title should not be too lengthy. It should
be specific to the area of study.
The title should not be burdened by pompous
words and the language in the title should be
professional
Components of the Research Proposal…
2. Introduction
2.1. Background information
 consist background information to the problem.
Possible to be preceded by literature
This covers the research gap or justification of the problem
2.2 Problem statement
clear problem statement in one paragraph or in one sentence
should be shown at the end of the background information or
under its own subtitle
2.3. Objectives and Research Questions
consists clear research goal (what to attain if the problem is
solved)
Develops key research questions that show the major building
blocks of the problem statement that need answer in your research
Components of the Research Proposal…
2.4. Delimitations of the Study/Scope of the study
Delimiting research is giving full disclosure of what
the researcher intends to do or does not intend to do.
When a researcher is able to set the scope of the study,
one can make the research manageable. At the same
time, this can lead to the choice of research method to
employ.
2.5. Significance of the study
the justification for the need of the research.
The benefit you get as a researcher
how the results of the study will be useful to the
beneficiaries.
Components of the Research Proposal…
3. Review of Related Literature
-Discussesthe theoretical and empirical framework
provides information about what was done, how it
was done, and what results were gathered.
Defines The technical terms and phrases that
operationalise the concepts and that have special
meanings.
Summary of the literature that contains the major
issues that you will adapt to your research or that
you will use in your research.
Components of the Research Proposal…
researchers ask the following questions before any research
what types of research has been done in the area?
What has been found in previous studies?
What suggestions do other researchers make for further
study?
What has not been investigated?
How can the proposed study add to our knowledge of the
area?
What research methods were used in previous studies?
Answers to these questions will usually help develop major
hypothesis that may serve as answers to research questions.
Components of the Research Proposal…
4. Research design and Methods
-It can have the following major subsections
4.1. Introduction: Describing the important variables (most
of the time a continuation of the conclusion part of your
literature),
4.2. Types and sources of data for analyzing these variables:
Type of data are whether primary data or secondary data or
both to be collected. Sources of data indicate from where to
obtain the data, Explain also the data collection methods with
their justifications
4.3. population, population size , sampling frames, the sample
size and the steps you followed to determine the sample size
 Components of the Research Proposal…

4.4. Procedures for collecting Data:

details about sampling and data collection
procedures by identifying and analyzing the
candidate sample designs and the reasons why
you select a particular sample design for your
research.
Components of the Research Proposal…
4.5. Methods of Data Analysis: Analysis of data can be
either using descriptive Statistics, testing hypotheses using
(inferential Statistics.
This part should contain descriptive, pictorial or
mathematical models that are related to the hypothesis and
that demonstrate how the variables are related to each other.

5. Bibliography/References: You should include a short

list of references used in the proposal.
6. Time Schedule
7. Budget Schedule/financial breakdown/
Questions?
Assignment -1
1. Prepare a research proposal
 2.4. Research Process
Research process consists of series of actions or steps
necessary to effectively carry out research
A brief description of these steps is as follows:
1. Formulating the Research Problem
2. Extensive Literature Review
3. Developing Working Hypothesis
4. Preparing the Research Design
5. Determining Sampling Design
6. Collecting the data
7. Execution of the project
8. Analysis of Data
9. Hypothesis Testing
10.Generalization and Interpretation
11.Preparation of the Research Report
 1. Formulating the Research Problem
The first and most important step in the research process.
It means defining the problem precisely
It is like determination of the destination before
undertaking a journey.
A problem defined is half solved- Formulation of problem
is often more essential than its solution
 It refers to some difficulty which a researcher experiences in the
context of either a theoretical or practical situation and wants to
obtain a solution for the same
 There are two types of research problems:
A. Those which relate to states of nature and;
B. Those which relate to relationships between variables
 Conti…
 Formulation of a problem involves the following
steps:
a) Statement of the problem in a general way
b) Understanding the nature of the problem
c) Surveying the available literature
d) Developing the idea through discussion
e) Rephrasing the research problem into a working
proposition.
NB- it should answers “ why you are conducting research
on the given topic”
 Criteria for selecting a problem
Internal External
• Researchability i.e., (problems having
• researcher’s solutions)
interest • Importance, urgency, usefulness and social
relevance, i.e., relative importance and
• researcher’s significance of problem visa -a -vis utility of
expected findings
competence • Novelty or originality
• researcher’s • Feasibility
•Availability of data
own •Suitable methodology
resources •Cooperation of organizations and
individuals
i.e., finance, •Available time
time, etc. • Facilities /infrastructure
• Reason validity

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 Some important sources for selecting a problem:

• Professional Experience,

• Contact and Discussion with People,

• Inference from theory,

• Professional Literature, and

• Technological and Social Changes.

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 Evaluation of the Problem
•  Before the final decision is passed on the
investigation of the problem, the feasibility of the
problem has to be tested in terms of personal
suitability of the researcher and social value of
the problem.
• In short, the research problem should be
evaluated in terms of the following criteria:
•Is the problem researchable?
•Is the problem new?
•Is the problem significant?
•Is the problem feasible for the particular
49 researcher? 03/25/22
 A research problem is explained in the
form of:
• Objective of the study
• Basic Research questions
• Hypothesis

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2. Extensive Literature Review
Once the problem is formulated, a brief summery
of it should be written down.
Literature Review gives an overview of the
problem
Provide indication of why the problem is worth
considering
Explain what contribution the study will make
Cite one or more studies that are directly
relevant to the proposed study or lead to the
theoretical justification.
 Literature review:
It is a body of text that aims to review the critical points of
current knowledge including substantive findings as well as
theoretical and methodological contributions to a particular
topic.
Reasons for Reviewing Literature
a) Bringing clarity and focus to the research problem
b) Improving the methodology
c) Broadening the researcher knowledge in the
research area.
d). Contextualize your findings.
Reviewing a literature is a continuous process.
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 Four main reasons of reviewing the Literature

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 Conti…
Procedures in reviewing the literature
 There are four steps involved in conducting a literature
review:
a) Search for existing literature in your area of study
b) Review the literature selected
c) Develop a theoretical framework
d) Develop a conceptual framework.

1. Distinguish theoretical framework and

conceptual framework?
 Styles of Referencing

Styles of referencing differ.

Currently two referencing styles are commonly
used:
• the Harvard style and
• the American Psychological Association
(APA) style, both of which are author-date
systems.
It is important to apply an adopted style strictly
and consistently

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 1. The Harvard style

 Referencing in the text (in-text citation)

 The Harvard style is an author-date system.
 It usually uses the author’s name and year of
publication to identify cited documents within the
text.

 Referencing in the references or bibliography

-AUTHOR(S) (Year) Title. Edition. Place of

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publication: Publisher. 03/25/22
 2) APA Style
 Referencing in the text (in-text citation)
 The APA style is also an author-date system.
 It usually uses the author’s name and year of
publication with punctuation to identify cited
documents within the text.

 Referencing in the references or bibliography

-AUTHOR(S),Title. Edition. Place of
publication: Publisher; (Year).

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3. Developing Working Hypothesis
After extensive literature survey, researcher should state the
working hypothesis in clear terms.
 It is tentative assumption made in order to draw out and test
its logical or empirical consequences.
 Hypotheses affect the manner in which tests must be
conducted in the analysis of data and indirectly the quality
of data which is required for the analysis.
 Hypotheses should be very specific, limited,
operationalisable, conceptually clear and should be related
to the body of knowledge.
 It should also be stated in precise and clearly defined terms
and also it has to be tested.
 Conti…
It indicates the type of data, the type of methods
of data analysis to be used and it guides the
researcher by delimiting the area of research and
keep him on the right track

there are two common categories of hypothesis:

1. Research Hypothesis
2. Alternate Hypothesis
Steps involved in hypothesis testing
The various steps involved in hypothesis testing
are stated below:
1. Making a formal statement
2. Selecting a significance level
3. Deciding the distribution to use
4. Selecting a random sample and computing an
appropriate value
5. Calculation of the probability
6. Comparing the probability
 Errors in Hypothesis Testing
In hypothesis testing, there are four possible outcomes:
The hypothesis is true but our test leads to its rejection
The hypothesis is false but our test leads to acceptance
The hypothesis is true and our test leads to acceptance
The hypothesis is false and our test leads to its rejection

The first two lead to an erroneous decision. The first

possibility leads to a Type I error and
The second possibility leads to a Type II error.
The last two lead to Correct Decision
 Deduction & Induction
A. Deductive reasoning- works from the more
general to the more specific. Sometimes this is
informally called a "top-down" approach.
It begins with thinking up a theory about a topic of
interest; then narrow to more specific hypotheses
 B. Inductive reasoning
Inductive reasoning- works the other way, moving from
specific observations to broader generalizations and theories.
Informally, sometimes called as "bottom up" approach.
It begins with specific observations and measures; then
formulate some tentative hypotheses, and finally end up
with developing some general theories.
 4. Preparing the Research Design
Research Design- Decisions regarding what,
where, when, how much, by what means
concerning an inquiry or a research study constitute
A research design is the arrangement of conditions
or the blueprint for collection, measurement and
analysis of data.
Research design is a plan, structure and strategy of
investigation so conceived as to obtain answers to
research questions or problems
 Characteristics of a Good Design
• The design that clearly stated the objective of the
problem to be studied, the nature of the problem
to be studied,
• The design which is characterized by adjectives
like flexible, appropriate, efficient, economical,
etc. ;
• The design which minimizes bias and maximizes
the reliability of the data collected and analyzed;
• The design which gives the smallest
experimental error;

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 • The design which yields relevant
information and provides an opportunity
for considering many aspects of a
problem;
• The design that assumes the availability
and skills of the researcher
• The design that consider the availability
of time and money for the research work

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More explicitly, the designing
decisions happen to be in respect of:
(i) What is the study about?
(ii) Why is the study being made?
(iii) Where will the study be carried out?
(iv) What type of data is required?
(v) Where can the required data be found?
(vi) What periods of time will the study include?
(vii) What will be the sample design?
(viii) What techniques of data collection will be used?
(ix) How will the data be analyzed?
(x) In what style will the report be prepared?
 Research designs can be broadly
categorized into three:
• Exploratory
• Descriptive
• Experimental

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 Exploratory Design

The main purpose is to discover new

ideas and insights
A very flexible, open-ended process.
 Require qualitative or mixed
approaches

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 Descriptive Design

• Describes attitudes, perceptions,

characteristics, activities and
situations.
• Examines who, what, when, where,
why, & how questions
• Most of the social researches fall
under this category
• Require quantitative, qualitative and
mixed method approach
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 Experimental Design
• Provides evidence that a cause-and-
effect relationship exists or does not
exist.
• Premise is that something (and
independent variable) directly influences
the behavior of something else (the
dependent variable).
• Most practical to talk about associations
or impact of one variable on another.
• Require quantitative or mixed
approaches

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 5. Determining Sampling Design
A sample design is a definite plan determined before any
data are actually collected for obtaining a sample from a
given population.

Sample design consists about

1. Sample size and
2. Sampling techniques

Sampling techniques can be either probability sampling

or non-probability sampling.
 6. Collecting the data
Some times data at hand are inadequate, and hence, it
becomes necessary to collect appropriate data
There are two major sources of data
A. Primary Data
B. Secondary Data
Primary data can be collected either through experiments
or through survey.
 If the researcher conducts experiment, he observes some
quantitative measurements or data with examines or test
the truth
 Conti…
But in the case of a survey, data can be
collected by any one of the following ways:
a. Observation
b. Interview
c. Questionnaire
 7. Execution of the project
The project should be executed in a systematic manner and in
time.

8. Analysis of Data
The analysis of data requires a number of closely related
operations such as:
a). Establishment of categories- the application of these
categories to raw data through coding, classification,
tabulation, and graphing;
b). Data description (measure of central tendencies,
dispersion, and relation) and data interpretation
c). Drawing statistical inferences.
 9. Hypothesis Testing
After analyzing the data, test the hypothesis.
Various tests of hypotheses, such as Chi square test, t-test, F-
test may be applied.
10. Generalization & Interpretation
If a hypotheses is tested, it is possible for the researcher to
arrive at generalization, i.e., to build a theory.
If the researcher had no hypotheses, the findings on the basis of
some theory is known as interpretation.
11. Preparation of the Research Report
Finally, the researcher has to prepare the report in appropriate
formats and appropriate language.
QUESTIONS

Thank you!
 Chapter Three

Sampling and
Sample Design
How and why sampling relate to business
research?

The world is large and full of people

We wanted to find out things about people
Sampling is a practical way of studying
people and their activities, thoughts,
attitudes, abilities, relationships in relation to
business through taking small bit
Note that sample must be representative of
the population from which it is taken
 Why we need sampling?
Sampling makes possible the study of
a large, heterogeneous population.
Sampling is for economy.
 Sampling is for speed .
 Sometimes,Sampling is for accuracy.

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 Sampling: Important terms
 Population: is the total set of units in which a researcher is
interested; Can be finite or infinite population
Examples: All employees of an organization to study the reasons of
employee turnover
 Element/case: a single member of the population.
 Census: includes all the elements in the population
Two conditions are appropriate for census study:
when the population is small ( for populations under 50 it is
usually more sensible to collect data from the entire population)
When the variability is high (when the elements are quite
different from each other) and when the size is manageable
 Sampling: is the process of selecting units into a sample from a
larger set of the same units (Population)
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 Sampling: Important terms
Sampling frame: a listing of all the elements in the
population from which the sample is drawn
For example the list of employees found in personnel
department to get information on employee turnover
Unit of analysis: the type of object whose characteristics
the researcher wants to measure and study.
For example: If data are collected on Employees, the
unit of analysis is employee.
Is the object that the hypothesis describes.
All variables in a hypothesis must be operationalized
for the same unit of analysis.
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Sampling: Important terms
Sampling unit: a unit or set of units considered for selection
at a stage of sampling.
Sampling unit may or may not be the same as a unit of
analysis. It is possible to include several units of analysis.
For example, if the researcher wants to interview senior
managers in the public sector, the senior managers become
the unit of analysis and the public organisations across the
country become sampling unit.
Parameter: is a characteristics of the population about
which researchers are interested to find out.
Example: The average income of all families in a city or the
age distribution of the city’s population.
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 Sampling: Important terms
Statistics: characteristics of a sample and is developed from
information about the member of the sample,
are used to make estimates of population parameters
Example: The mean income computed from a sample or the age
distribution of that sample are statistics.
Sampling errors: the difference between population parameter and the
statistical estimate.
sampling error can be expressed through the use of confidence levels
and confidence intervals. Example: being 95% confident that the
population mean is between + or – of the sample mean
Standard error: the standard deviation of the means of the sampling
distribution.

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Sampling: Important terms
Sample bias: misrepresentation of the population
by the sample. Caused by the flaw in the design or
in the implementation of sampling procedures.
Sampling fraction: % of population selected for
the sample
Sample size: the number of elements selected for
the sample to represent the population.

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 Determination of Sample Size
Sample size determination is influenced by:
The purpose of the study,
Population size,
The risk of selecting a "bad“ sample,
Nature of the population- The degree of
Heterogeneous or homogenous
Nature of study (qualitative or quantitative)
Sampling design or type of sample
The resource availability

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 Characteristics of a Good Sampling Design
• Truly representative
• Having small sampling error
• Economically viable
• Systematic bias is controlled (in a better way)
• Results can be applied to the population in general
with a reasonable level of confidence
• Optimum size (adequately large)
• Similar to population-should have all the
characteristics that are present in the population

87
 Steps in sampling Design
Defining the population – target
population
Listing the population – sampling frame
Obtaining an adequate sample size –
Based on different approaches
Selecting a representative sample –
based on appropriate method
(probability or non- probability)
88
 Sample size
 STRATEGIES FOR DETERMINING SAMPLE SIZE
using a census for small populations (e.g., 50 or less).
imitating a sample size of similar studies,
using published tables, and
applying formulas to calculate a sample size

 For continuous values 2

Zs 

n 

d 

 Where n is sample size, Z is the abscissa at specific confidence level, s
standard deviation of the sample and d is the precision level.
 Sample Design
Sample design: the set of procedures for selecting
the units from the population that are to be in the
sample.

Two major types of sample design

Probability/Random sampling:
Non probability/None random sampling

90
 A. Probability/ Random sampling
Four types of probability sampling
I. Simple random sampling:
II. Systematic random sampling
III. Stratified random sampling
IV. Cluster sampling
I. Simple Random Sampling
Each unit in the population has equal chance of being selected.
Can be lottery method or a random number table
It requires a complete list of the study population. The
researcher assigns each member of sampling frame a number
before selecting sample units

91
 Simple random sampling
 Helps to eliminate the inadvertent introduction of
sample bias.
Example: assume there are 150 employees (with BA
degree and above) in the organization with the
problem of high employee turnover. If the sample
size is 35 employees. Use lottery and random
number table. to select the sample elements.

92
 Simple random sampling
Procedures:
1. Identify the population: All employees with
BA degree and above in the organization
2. The sampling frame: The list of employees
with BA degree and above, names are
sequentially numbered from 001 to 150
3. Prepare numbered balls equal to the number
of the population
4. Thoroughly mix up the balls and then
5. Draw 35 balls from the 150 balls.

93
 II. Systematic Random sampling
 It requires the complete list of population
 It reduces the amount of effort required to draw a sample and
provides adequate results. But it does not result in a truly random
sample
 Applicable when the researcher wants to pick households in the
sample from the population of consecutive households found along
a street/road.

Procedures:
 Population has N units. Plan to sample n units and then
 The sampling interval/skip= N/n------K
 Line-up all N units and Randomly select a number between 1 and K
 Select the randomly selected unit and every k th unit after that
Example: the list contains 10,000 element and you want a sample of 1,000:
 Sampling interval = Population size/Sample size=10
 Randomly select a number between 1 and 10. Assume the first element in the
sample is number 7, then the selection of elements continue as 7, 17, 27 …,
94
9987, 9997
 III. Stratified sampling
 Involves a process of stratification or segregation, followed
by random/purposive/sample from each stratum.
Procedures
 1st: divide or classify the population into strata, or groups,
on the basis of some common characteristics such as sex, race,
or institutional affiliation, level of management, or income, etc.
-Mutually exclusive groups: the classification should be done so
that every member of the population is found in one and only
one stratum.
 2nd Determine the size to be taken from each stratum
(proportionately or disproportionately)
 3rd Separate samples are drawn from each stratum randomly.

95
 Stratified sampling
It ensures homogeneity within each stratum, but
heterogeneity between strata

Stratified sampling can be further classified as:

A). Proportional:- take different sample from each stratum

based on the proportionality of the stratum size

B). Disproportional:- not consider the size of prospective

respondents, but will take the same sample from each stratum
 IV. Cluster Sampling
It involves division of elements of a population into
geographical groups-the groups are termed clusters
Recommended when:
 it is necessary to study a large geographical area and
It is difficult to identify the sampling frame
The geographical distribution of the members is scattered
Stages in cluster sampling
1. The sampling frame is the complete list of clusters rather
than individuals
2. Select a few clusters, normally using simple random
sampling technique.
3. Collect data from the selected clusters either using census or
by taking sample.
97
 Cluster sampling
It is different from stratified sampling, because
Every cluster is not sampled; where as every
stratum is sampled in the case of stratified
sampling.
It saves time and money
it may requires larger sample than other
methods for the same level of accuracy
It may losses key information as a result of
random selection and re-selection process of
groups.
 V. Multi-stage Sampling
This method is used in large-scale surveys. A
sample of first—stage sampling units is chosen,
each of the selected units is divided into second-
stage units, samples of second-stage units are
selected, and so on
Different methods (simple random, stratified,
systematic or cluster sampling) may be used at
any stage
The first-stage units may be Country → regions
→ Woredas → kebeles → households
99
 B. Non probability/ None random sampling
Four types
1. Convenient sampling
2. Purposive sampling (Expert sampling)
3. Quota sampling
4. Snow ball (referral Sampling)

 Non-probability sampling designs

Can work well for exploratory studies
Useful if it is not important to obtain accurate estimates of
population characteristics
The units are selected at the discretion of the researcher
Cheaper and easier to carry out than probability designs
one cannot estimate parameters from sample statistics
Such samples would not be a representative
100
 I. Convenience sampling
 Also called haphazard or Accidental sampling
 It involves collecting information from members of the
population who are conveniently available to provide it.
 For example: collecting information from Volunteers

 It is get and talk approach

 Criteria: The availability/ the ease of obtaining/ and
willingness to respond
 Convenient and Economical to sample employees in a
nearby area
During election times TV channels often present man-on-
the-street interviews to reflect public opinion.
101
 II. Quota sampling
 It classifies
the population into group and then select a
quota of individual units with defined characteristics in
given the population
 It is not a representative of the population
 It is a type of stratified sample in which selection of cases
within strata is entirely non-random.
 Is called Dimensional sampling  If all dimensions of the
population are considered in quota sample
 It can also be administered proportionally or
disproportionally
 Example: A researcher is interested to assess the attitudes of employees
towards working condition. male are 60 percent and female are 40% in the
organizations: If Sample size is 30 employees, then 18 conveniently
available male and 12 female workers will be sampled

102
 III. Purposive sampling
Is judgmental/ deliberate sampling
Identify and target individuals who are believed to be
typical of the population being studied.
The researcher uses his own judgment about which
respondents to choose, and
Picks only those best meet the purposes of the study.
 Expert sampling: involves selecting persons with
known experience or expertise in an area.
With purposive sampling the sample is ‘hand picked’
for the research

103
 IV. Snowball /referral sampling
Snowball: Individuals are discovered initially, and then
each individual is used to locate others (the names &
addresses) who possess similar characteristics and who,
in turn, identify others.

Used when members of a population cannot be located

easily by other methods and where the members of a
population know each other.
Example: we may want to sample very small populations
who are not easily distinguishable from the general
population or who do not want to be identified, example
drug users, homeless people
104
Questions about sample design?
 Chapter Four:
DATA COLLECTION METHODS
 Discussion Pints
1. What are the Types of Data?
2. What are the ethical issues in Data collection?
3. What are the methods of primary data collection?
4. Questionnaire:
a. Closed ended: Advantages and disadvantages
b. Open ended Advantages and disadvantages
c. What are the do’s and don'ts in developing questionnaires
5. Interview
a. Types of interview
b. Advantages and disadvantages
6. Observation
a. Types of observations
b. Advantages and disadvantages
7. Focus group discussion
a. Moderator
8. Secondary data
a. Sources
b. Advantages and disadvantages
1. Data collection methods
 Ethical issues: protection from harm, informed consent, right to
privacy and honesty with professional colleagues
 Data can be primary or secondary
1.1. The primary data:
 are data collected for the first time and hence they are original
 Major sources of primary data are diaries of eyewitness, tape-
records, films, letters and autobiographies
1.2. The secondary data:
  are those which have already been gathered by someone else and
which have already been passed through the statistical process
  These include historical studies based on the actual data,
statistical research based on census data, newspaper reports of
an event, company records, government publications
1.1. The primary data

11/15/2012
 1.1.1. Questionnaire
 The questionnaire is usually mailed, administered personally
or electronically
 Preparation of questionnaire can be tedious, involving
several drafts and more than one pretests
Questions can be asked to gather information on :
 Facts: help to get objective information from respondents.
Examples are gender, age, marital status, education, income,
etc.
 Behaviour: behaviour questions help to get information
about what people do. Examples: “Have you ever attended
any public lecture”
 Questionnaire
Opinions: asking people what they think about
specific issue or event
Attitudes: help to get information on the underlying
belief of the respondent or the way people look at
things.
Motives: asking people why people behave in a
particular manner or hold certain opinions or attitudes.
Knowledge: It helps to obtain information about the
extent of knowledge an individual has and to what
extent the information is accurate.
General Merits of Questionnaire
1. There is low cost even when the universe is large
and is widely spread geographically.
2. It is free from the bias of the interviewer;
answers are in respondents’ own words.
3. Respondents have adequate time to give well
thought out answers.
4. Respondents, who are not easily approachable,
can also be reached conveniently.
5. Large samples can be made use of and thus the
results can be made more dependable and
reliable.
General Demerits of questionnaire:
1. Low rate of return; bias due to no-response is often
indeterminate.
2. It can be used only when respondents are educated
and cooperating.
3. The control over questionnaire may be lost once it
is sent.
4. There is inbuilt inflexibility because of the
difficulty of amending the approach once
questionnaires have been dispatched.
5. There is also the possibility of ambiguous replies
or omission of replies altogether to certain
questions; interpretation of omissions is difficult.
6. It is difficult to know whether willing respondents
are truly representative.
7. This method is likely to be the slowest of all.
 Conti...
Types of Questionnaires: open-ended or closed-ended
 Closed ended questions allow only answers which fit into
categories that have been established in advance by the researcher.
Open-ended - unrestricted type of questionnaire, free response in
the respondent's own words; leave the respondent to decide the
wording and the length of the answer and the kind of matters to be
raised in the answer.
Advantages of closed- ended questions:
 The answers are standards, and can be compared from person to
person.
 The answers are much easier to code and analyze
 They are easier for a respondent to answer as he or she merely
choose a category,
 Conti...
Disadvantages of closed-ended questions:
  guesses or randomly answers if a respondent does not
know the answer or has no opinion
 There is no opportunity for the respondent to clarify or
qualify his or her answer
 Differences in interpretation of what was meant by the
question may go undetected
  Variations in answers among the different respondents may
be eliminated artificially by forced- choice responses
 A likelihood of a clerical error as the respondent circles
 Conti…
The advantages of open-ended questions:
  They can be used when not all of the possible answer categories
are known and to see what the respondent views as appropriate
answer categories
  To allow the respondent to answer adequately, in all detail he or
she likes, and to clarify and qualify his or her answer
  They can be used when there are too many potential answer
categories to list on the questionnaire – you can not list too many
questions in a given questionnaire
 They allow the respondent to have more opportunity for creativity
or self-expression
 Conti…
Disadvantages of open-ended questions
  The possibility of collecting worthless and irrelevant information
  Data are often not standardized from person to person, making
comparison or statistical analysis difficult
  Coding is often very difficult and subjective
 require a lot of time for analysis
  may require more of the respondent's time and effort, and may
engender a high refusal rate /reduce respondents’ willingness to
take part in the research.
 possibly discouraging some respondents who do not wish to
answer a lengthy questionnaire.
Questionnaire: a list of some dos and don’ts
 make each question brief and the wording clear and concise with minimal use of
jargon
 keep the length of the questionnaire to a minimum: a maximum of around 20
questions is probably a good guide for most surveys.
 Make all definitions, assumptions, and qualifiers clearly understood
 Avoid making significant memory demands
 make the questions simple to answer
 Keep it interesting – don’t make it monotonous, do have a logical sequence to
the question
 Avoid biased, loaded, leading, or sensitive questions.
◦ Example: ‘are you a heavy smoker?’ Instead use ranges:. Please indicate your
smoking habit: less than 10 cigarettes a day, between 10 and 20, over 20
◦ Leading: what are your views on the level of VAT in Ethiopia? Is better than ‘
do you agree that the level of VAT in Ethiopia is too high?
Question; a list of some dos and don’ts
 start with simple questions such as gender, leaving more
complicated questions to be answered late in the questionnaire.
 avoid asking personal questions
 avoid asking the same questions in a different fashion
◦ Abortion should be legalized - agree / disagree) at one point and
Abortion should not be legalized (agree/disagree)
 Don’t ask two questions in one/ double barrelled questions-
with two purposes or interpretations/
◦ Example: Is your job interesting and well paid? Is unlikely to be
answered with a simple yes or no
 Don’t ask hypothetical question such as winning the National
Lottery).
 Questionnaire: Important points to note
I. Introductory statement of a Questionnaire
state the purpose of the study and its significance;
explain who the data collector is, the basis of its authority/the
sponsor-under whose auspices is the research being undertaken?, and
why it is conducting the study;
tell how and why the respondents were selected;
explain why their answers are important;
tell how to complete the format and list the person to call if help is
needed to complete the form;
provide assurance of confidentiality and anonymity when
appropriate;
explain how the data will be used;
explain who will have access to the information; and
present the response efforts as a favor and thank the respondents for
their cooperation.
 Questionnaire: Important…
II. Format of the questionnaire
Cleanly format your questionnaire: margins, spacing,
font, etc.
Proofread your questionnaire carefully for grammar and
spelling errors
conduct a pilot survey on a small sample so that to test
the reliability and validity of your measure.
Schedule vs questionnaire method
 Schedule is a device consisting of a set of questions,
which are asked and filled in by the enumerators who
are specially trained for the purpose
 1.1.2. Interview
An interview is a process of
interaction in which the interviewee
gives the needed information verbally
in a face-to-face situation or through
telephone (koal 1996).
 Involves presentation of oral-verbal
stimuli and reply in terms of oral-
verbal responses.
122
 • Answers are recorded by:
– Writing the response
– Tape recording or
– A combination of writing and tape recording

• Interview can be conducted through:

– personal / face-to-face (individually or in
group) or
– telephone
– through internet/online

123
 Purpose of interview
It is the principal means of collecting information
about what an interviewee:
Knows (i.e., getting knowledge or information)
 likes or dislikes (i.e., values & preferences)
and
Thinks (i.e., attitudes and beliefs)
It may be used to test hypotheses or to suggest
new
It could be used in conjunction with other
methods in a research undertaking

124
 Interview
 Types of Interview: structured , unstructured and semi-
structured
A) Structured interview
 Set of predetermined questions and of highly
standardized recording technique (audio or digital
recorders)
 The same types of questions are presented in the same
order to each interviewee
 The interviewer has no freedom to rephrase or change the
order of questions to be presented
 quite often used in the case of descriptive studies
 Interview tech…
B. Unstructured interview
 The interviewer has a general plan of inquiry but not a
specific set of questions that must be asked in particular
words and in a particular order
  characterized by flexibility
 The interviewer is largely free to arrange, rephrase, modify,
and add some new questions
 Very important for exploratory research studies
C. Semi-structured interview
 Shares the nature of both structured and unstructured
interview
 Interview: Techniques of Interviewing
  Prepare for interview, self-presentation: objective of
the study, its background, how the respondent was
selected, the confidential nature of the interview, the
beneficial values of the research findings
 Conduct the interview – use your communication skills
here (attentive, non-judgmental), ask the questions
properly, probe meaningfully
 Recording of the interview; record the responses
accurately, record response as they occur; use some
shorthand system (abbreviating words, key words)
 Interview…
Advantages:
 More and in-depth information can be obtained
There is greater flexibility
Personal information can be obtained easily
high response rate
The language of the interview can be adapted to the ability
the person interviewed
Disadvantages
 Expensive including Cost of selecting, training and
supervising the field-staff
Bias of interviewer and the respondent - presence of the
interviewer on the spot may over-stimulate the respondent -
may give imaginary information
Important officials or executives may not be easily
approachable
More-time-consuming, when calling the respondents
 1.1.3. Observation Methods
 observing what is occurring in some real - life situation , without
asking questions of respondents
 It is valuable instrument in a wide range of research studies.
◦ Examples: Cultural study, traffic counts, direction of traffic flows
Planning and execution of observation
  Selecting an appropriate group of subjects to observe
 Identifying the specific activities or units of behavior to be observed
and focusing attention on same at the time of implementation
  Proper arrangement of specific conditions for the subject(s) to be
observed
 Assuming the proper role or physical positions for observing
 Handling well the recording instruments to be used
Classification of observation methods
A) Direct versus Indirect observation
Direct observation: the observer is physically present
and personally monitors what takes place
Very flexible - the observer can react to events
The observer is free to shift places, change the focus
of observation, or concentrate on unexpected events
weakness - the observers' perception may become
overloaded as events move quickly; they must later try
to reconstruct what they are not be able to record
Observer fatigue, boredom, and distracting events
can reduce the accuracy and completeness.
 Observation
Indirect observation
 The recording is done by mechanical/adjusted
instruments
◦ Example: a special camera that takes one frame every
second is mounted in a department of a large store to
study customer and employee movement
Less flexible but much less biasing, less unpredictable
or erratic in accuracy
The permanent record can be analyzed to include any
different aspects of an event
 Observation…
B. ) Disguised (Covert) Vs undisguised (overt) observation
The role of the observers should be disguised in situations
where people behave differently if they know they were being
observed
Often technical means are used such as one-way mirrors,
hidden cameras, or microphones
Reduce the risk of observer bias but bring up a question of
ethics
◦ Hidden observation is a form of intelligence work
A modified approach - the presence of the observer is not
concealed, but the observer´s real purpose and subject of
interest are hidden
 Observation…
c) Participant Vs non-participant observation
 Participant observation: The observer becomes one of the
groups under observation
Non-participant observation: Observer takes position where his
presence is not disturbing the group.

d) Structured Vs. unstructured observation

Structured observation is systematic and has a high level of
predetermined steps
Objective: To quantify behavior (your focus is to determine
how often things happen rather than why they happen. Ex: Time
and motion study
Unstructured observation: The observer has no definite ideas
of the particular aspects that need focus.
Observing events that are happening may also be a part of the
plan as in many qualitative studies.
Observation: Recording and interpreting
the observation
 the observer must take utmost care to minimize the influence
of his biases, attitudes and values on the observation report
Advantages:
 Useful in locating data about non-readers, young children,
people with mental disorders, and laboratory animals
 The data obtained through observation of events as they
normally occur are generally more reliable and free from
respondent bias.
Disadvantages:
 It is time consuming
 It is costly to collect data.
 The data may reflect observers’ bias
 1.1.4. Focus group discussion
 a special type of interview that offers opportunity to interview a
number of people at the same time.
 Made by a panel of 8 to 12 respondents led by a trained moderator
 The moderator uses group dynamics principles to focus or guide the
group in an exchange of ideas, feelings, and experiences on a clearly
understood topic
 Good for exploratory research
 Qualities of a moderator: (Kindness with firmness, Tolerance,
Involvement, understanding, Encouragement, Flexibility, Sensitivity
/ emotional response)
 Benefits of FGD : (Synergism , Snowballing, Stimulation, Security,
Spontaneity—/natural behavior/, Serendipity/discovery of
something fortunate, Specialization, Scientific Scrutiny, Structure,
Speed)
 Collection of Secondary Data

Secondary data means data that are

already available i.e., the data which
have already been collected and
analyzed by someone else.

136
 Secondary data may either be published data or
unpublished data.

Usually published data are available in:

various publications of the central, state or
local governments;
various publications of foreign governments
or of international organizations;
technical and trade journals.

137
 books, magazines and newspapers;
reports and publications of various
associations connected with business and
industry, banks, stock exchanges, etc.;
reports prepared by research scholars,
universities, economists, etc. in different
fields; and
public records and statistics, historical
documents, and other sources of published
information.
138
 The sources of unpublished data are
many; they may be found in diaries,
letters, unpublished biographies and
autobiographies and also may be
available with scholars and research
workers, trade associations, labor
bureaus and other public/ private
individuals and organizations.
139
 Researcher must be very careful in using secondary
data. He must see that they possess following
characteristics:
Reliability of data
Suitability of data
Adequacy of data
From all this we can say that it is very risky to use the
already available data. The already available data
should be used by the researcher only when he finds
them reliable, suitable and adequate.  

140
 Strengths
Enable researchers to study past events or issues
Usually most secondary documents are readily
available
It is more economical
Give an easy way of obtaining other peoples perception

141
 Limitations
Some secondary sources may be unreliable and
inaccurate
Some sources could be confidential/secret/private
Some documents may not be up to date and
complete
Documents may be biased to some extent since they
represent the views of the authors

142
11/15/2012
 Contents
Data Processing: Editing, Coding, Classification,
Tabulation, and presentation
Employing Statistical Tools for Data Analysis
 Overview of descriptive and inferential statistics
 Parametric and non-parametric tests
Interpretation of Data
Utilizing Computers for Data Processing (using STATA or
SPSS): An Overview

145
 Plan for processing and analysis:
Quantitative data
• Data Processing: Editing, Coding,
Classification, Tabulation, and presentation
• Level of measurements [Nominal, Ordinal,
Interval and Ratio]
• Employing Statistical Tools for Data Analysis
Descriptive Vs inferential statistics
Parametric and non-parametric tests
• Interpretation of Data
• Utilizing Computers for Data Processing

146
(using SPSS, STATA, etc)
147
SEM, Meta Analysis
 Qualitative Data Analysis
 Best used when for in-depth understanding of the
intervention
Used for any non-numerical data collected:
– unstructured observations
– open-ended interviews
– analysis of written documents
– focus groups transcripts
– diaries, observations
Analysis challenging
Take care for accuracy (validity concern)

148
 Computer help for qualitative data
analysis
Software packages to help you organize data [example,
Qualpro, Hyperqual, Anthropax, Atlas-ti, Envivo, etc]
Search, organize, categorize, and annotate textual and
visual data
Help you visualize the relationships among data

149
 Data Processing:
Once the data have been collected, the next step is data
processing, generally consisting of:
 Editing,
Coding/recoding
 Classification and
Tabulations including producing tables, graphs,
coefficients etc.
Data processing requires careful attention and
understandings.
understandings Else it results in what is known as
GIGO:
GIGO Garbage in Garbage out. out

150
 Questionnaire Editing
Editing of data is a process of examining the collected
raw data (especially in surveys) to detect errors and
omissions and to correct these.
It involves a careful scrutiny of the completed
questionnaires and /or schedules. It is done to assure
that information received are complete as much as
possible and have been well arranged to facilitate
coding and tabulation.

151
 Editing requires checking for the following:
a. Completeness: Whether every questions has
answers or not. Incomplete questions can be
imputed (if possible).
b. Accuracy:
Accuracy Check if every questions has an appropriate answer.
Inaccuracy often arises out of carelessness on the part of
enumerator, deliberate misleading, and ticking wrong boxes or
circling wrong codes.

c. Uniformity Failure
Uniformity: to give explicit instructions or
clear understanding of the questions could lead
to recording the same answer in different
ways. A check on uniformity is believed to
eradicate this source of error.
152
 Data Coding
Coding is the process of converting answers to
numbers and classifying answers accordingly so that
responses can be put into a limited number of
categories or classes. .
Coding is the primary task in reduction of
qualitative data.
Coding decision should usually be taken at the
designing stage of the questionnaire.

153
 Six main steps in Coding and
Classifying quantitative data:
a. Classifying responses
b. Allocating codes to each variable
c. Allocating column numbers to each
variables
d. Producing a codebook
e. Checking from coding errors
f. Entering data into computer

154
 Data Entry
Requirements for Data Entry
1. Definition of Data Dictionary – Giving names and
explanations for each of the variables to be entered
into the database.
2. Defining range : In order to regulate the magnitude of
answers to be entered for each of the questions on the
questionnaires, the researcher needs to limit the scope
of answers and their flow patterns.

155
Data editing and cleaning after data entry

Data editing and cleaning after data entry is

tantamount to drying and ironing washed clothes
before putting on.

Wrong entries either in the field or during data

coding and entry need to be checked and removed
before the commencement of data analysis.

Cleaning can be done by looking at patterns of the

data via identification of outliers and unexpected
responses through running frequencies and cross
tabulating related variables.
156
 Four broad considerations of data
analysis
Identification of Level of measurement of each
variable
Number of variables that each of the particular
pieces of analysis requires.
Types of analysis required: descriptive vs analytic
Application of ethical principles of full, fair,
appropriate and challenging analysis to the selection
of data to be analyzed and reported.

157
 Tabulation and data analysis
Tabulation starts with production of simple
frequency and contingency tables to construction of
complex and multi-dimensional tables
Tabulation is often known as a skeleton form of the
survey research.
A researcher shall assume some knowledge of
quantitative data analysis procedures to assume the
sense of skeleton.
Even if the researcher does not have sufficient
knowledge of data analysis, he/she can consult
someone who has sufficient knowledge of data
processing.
158
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 Graphical methods of displaying data
 Pie Charts
 Categories represented as percentages of total
 Bar Graphs
 Heights of rectangles represent group frequencies
 Bars do not touch each other
 Frequency Polygons
 Height of line represents frequency
 Histogram
 A histogram is a chart made of bars of different
heights but interconnected.
 Time Plots
 Represents values over time
163
 Pie Chart
Figure 1-1: Extent of job satisfication
Category
Don't like my job but it is on my career path
Job is OK, but it is not on my career path
Enjoy job, but it is not on my career path
My job just pays the bills
Happy with career

6.0% Do not like my job, but it is on my career path

Happy with career

19.0%
33.0%
Job OK, but it is not on my career path

19.0%
Enjoy job, but it is not on my career path
23.0%
My job just pays the bills

NB: Use different colors for each of the slices to

164
distinguish between categories
 Bar Chart
Figure 1-2
Quartely net income for General Motors (in billions)

1.5

1.2

0.9

0.6

0.3

0.0
1Q 2Q 3Q 4Q 1Q
2003 C4 2004

Bar chart is advantageous to make presentations for those

who are not familiar with statistical materials
165
 Histogram Example
Frequency Histogram

166
 Frequency Polygon
Relative Frequency Polygon
0 .3

0 .2
Relative Frequency

0 .1

0 .0

0 1 0 2 0 3 0 4 0 5 0

Sales

It visualizes gradual shifts in frequency from one

category to another
167
 Time Plot/Line Graph
M o n t h l y S t e e l P r o d u c ti o n

8 .5

7 .5
Million s of Ton s

6 .5

5 .5

M o n th J F MAM J J A S O N D J F MAM J J A S O N D J F MAM J J A S O

168
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What are the determinants to say
qualitative and/or quantitative analysis
approach?
Data nature
Analysis techniques
 if not, Mixed approach
 Measurement of Shape of Distribution:
Skewness and Kurtosis
 Skewness
Measure of asymmetry of a frequency distribution
 Skewed to left
 Symmetric or unskewed
 Skewed to right

 Kurtosis
Measure of flatness or peakedness of a frequency
distribution
 Platykurtic (relatively flat)
 Mesokurtic (normal)
 Leptokurtic (relatively peaked)

181
 Skewness
Skewed to left

182
 Skewness
Symmetric

183
 Skewness
Skewed to right

184
 Kurtosis
Platykurtic - flat distribution

185
 Kurtosis
Mesokurtic – neither too flat nor too peaked

186
 Kurtosis
Leptokurtic - peaked distribution

187
 Chapter Six
What statistical analysis should We use?
 6.1. introduction
6.1.1. Levels of Measurement of Data
 There are four levels of measurement: Nominal, Ordinal,
Interval, and Ratio.
A. Nominal Data: are categorical or qualitative data that
are converted into numerical data by coding the various
categories. These are numerical in name only; because
the numbers assigned are more symbols and hence
cannot have any numerical meaning in the real sense.
There is no any mathematical difference between
categories.
Examples:
 Sex , Ethnic group, and Marital status  
 Conti…
B. Ordinal Data: are nominal data, which have
order and consensus. Measurements with ordinal
scales are ordered in the sense that higher
numbers represent higher values, i.e., they can
have meaningful inequalities (< or >). In such
kind of data, only counting and ranking are
possible but it is not likely to find exact
differences.
Examples:
Military ranks, Graduates , likert scal
 Conti…
C. Interval Data: are ordinal data in which the
differences between units have meaning. These data
do not have a’ true’ zero point and therefore it is
not possible to make statements about how many
times higher one score is than other. In other words,
the ratios of different values are meaningless.
Examples:
Number of votes in election.
 Exam scores of students.
 Data on shoe size of individuals.
 Conti…
D. Ratio Data: are interval data, which also have
true zero point. With these data, one can perform
addition, subtraction, division and multiplication.
Examples:
1. Income is a ratio data because zero dollars is
truly “no income”
2. Measurement data like height, weight, volume
and area.
N.B. Both Nominal Data and Ordinal Data are
categorical data
 Type of Tests
Parametric tests are statistical tests which
make certain assumptions about the parameters
of the full population from which the sample is
taken.
These tests normally involve data expressed in
absolute numbers (interval or ratio) rather
than ranks and categories (nominal or ordinal).
 Such tests include analysis of variance (ANOVA), t-
tests, Z-test, etc.

206
 Non parametric test
• Non-parametric tests are used to test
hypotheses with nominal and ordinal data.
• The use of non-parametric methods may be
necessary when data have a ranking but no
clear numerical interpretation, such as when
assessing preferences; in terms of levels of
measurement, for data on an ordinal scale.
• Such tests are like Chi-Square (X2), Mann-
Whitney Test, kruskal wallis, etc

207
6.1.2. Types of Variable
A. Independent Variable
B. Dependent Variable
C. Mediator variable
 Conti…
C. Mediator variable
A mediator variable influences the strength
and/or direction of the relation between the
independent and dependent variables;
mediators are often called intervening
(Baron & Kenny, 1986). It is used to explain
the causal relation between dependent and
independent variables (Hair et al, 2006).
 Conti…
A. Qualitative variable: variables in which the
characteristic or variable being studied is non-numeric.
A qualitative variable is a variable that can be described
only in words.
Example: gender, color, religion, ethnic group etc.

B. Quantitative variable: variables that can be expressed

numerically or are variables that are numeric in nature.
Quantitative variables can be further classified as
discrete or continuous.
 Conti…
i. Discrete variables: A Variable that assumes a
finite or countable number of possible values is
called a discrete variable. There are finite or
countable numbers of choices available with
discrete data. You cannot have 2.63 people in the
room. Discrete variable is usually obtained by
counting.
-E.g., number of children’s in a family, number of cars
at a traffic light is usually obtained by counting.

ii. Continuous variables: A variable that can

theoretically assume infinite number of possible
values is called a continuous variable.
 Latent variable Vs observed
variables
I. Latent variable- are a central concept and
abstract phenomena which are of hidden or
unobserved and theoretical (Bowen and
Guo, 2012), and typically hypothetically
existing constructs of interests in a study
(Raykov and Marcoulides, 2006).
-Latent variables are measured indirectly by
their respective indicators (observed
variables)
II. observed variables
-are variables that can be directly measured and are indicators of
a latent variables (Wang and Wang , 2012).
 . Thus, the observed variables can be categorical, ordinary,
and continuous, but all latent variables are continuous (Kline,
2011).

A latent variable with three indictors are considered as

acceptable,
Four or more is recommendable, but, a latent variable with 5 to
7 indicators are considered as to be maximum (Hair et al.,
2006).
-When a latent variable has only one observed variables, the value
of one shows the value of the other
 Practical examples
 Customer Loyalty is a latent variable can be measured
though a rapid loyalty approach.
 It is measured indirectly by their respective indicators
(observed variables) such as
Customer attraction
Customer retention
Customers’ advocacy
Customer’s repeat purchase
Customer’s bulk purchase
6.2. Part one: Categorical
Variables/data
 What is categorical variable?
- A variable that can be studied in providing categorized
alternatives, or can be answered or described only in
categories.

 What is categorical data?

The data (whether it is expressed numerically or in word,
Discrete variables or Continuous variables) that can be
offered in terms of categories.
 Likert-Type Versus Likert Scales
 Likert-type items
Likert-type items- as single questions that use some aspect of
the original Likert response alternatives.
Likert items- are used to measure respondents' attitudes to a
particular question or statement.

 A Likert Scales
 Likert Scales on the other hand, is composed of a series of
four or more Likert-type items that are combined into a
single composite score/variable during the data analysis
process.
Combined, the items are used to provide a quantitative
measure of a character
 Conti…
With likert type data we cannot use the
mean as a measure of central tendency
Likert-type items fall into the ordinal
measurement scale
For Likert-type items - mode or median
for central tendency, frequencies for
variability, chi-square measure of
association, Kendall Tau B, and Kendall
Tau C
 Conti…
Likert scale data, on the other hand, are analyzed
at the interval measurement scale. B/C it is
created by calculating a composite score (sum or
mean)
 Descriptive statistics recommended for interval
scale items include the ‘mean’ for central tendency
and standard deviations for variability.
Additional data analysis procedures appropriate for
interval scale items would include the Pearson's r,
t-test, ANOVA, and regression procedures.
 Nature of Likert-Type Items

I. Items measuring degree of acceptance

-this type of Likert items are used to measure respondents'
attitudes towards to accepting a particular statement.

 it is usually coded as follows.

 1 = Strongly disagree
 2 = Disagree
 3 = Neutral
 4 = Agree
 5 = Strongly agree
 Conti…
II. Items measuring degree of
extent
-Likert items are used to measure respondents' believe
towards the extent of a particular question.
 it is usually coded as follows.
 1 = very low extent
 2 = low extent
 3 = medium extent
 4 = high extent
 5 = very high extent
I. How to analysis Categorical data?
A. Univariate
Variables With two outcomes- Binomial Probability Test
Variables With more than two outcomes- Chi-square
Goodness of fit test
B. Bivariate-when there are two categorical
variables
i. when there are one categorical dependant
variable and one predictor variable
- Simple logistic regression (Simple
Binary outcome logistic regression & Simple
Ordered logistic regression)

- Spearman’s rank correlation

C. Multivariate- when there are one
categorical dependant variable but more than one
predictor variable
-Multiple logistic regression- (Multiple
binary outcome logistic regression & Multiple ordered logistic
regression)
-Multinomial (polytomous) logistic
regression
-Correlation- (Partial and semi-partial
correlations, and Multiple correlation)
6.3. Part two: interval/continuous
Variables/data
 How to analysis interval variables
A. Univariate
-one-sample t-test
B. Bivariate
i. when there are two interval variables
-Paired t test (Two sample, paired)
ii. Group Difference test-when there are one Continuous
dependant variable and one categorical independent
variable
 ANOVA- analysis of variance and ANCOVA-analysis of
covariance
iii. Causality test-(Simple linear regression)
-when there are one interval dependant variable and
one predictor variable
C. Multivariate-
i. Group Difference test- when there are two or more
dependent continuous and independent categorical
variable/s
 MANOVA- Multiple analysis of variance
 MANCOVA-Multiple analysis of covariance

ii. Multiple linear regression- when there are one

Continuous dependant variable and two or more predictors
 Other statistical tests
i. Multivariate regression
-It is a type of regression in which there are two or more
dependent and two or more predictor (independent)
variables
It can serve to compute the coefficient of regression
when you have;
A.Two or more categorical dependent variables
B. Two or more continuous dependent variables
C. The combination of categorical and continuous
dependent variables
ii. Factor analysis
Steps
i. Exploratory factor analysis (EFA) or principal component
analysis (PCA)
ii. Correlation matrix and then merging and rejection variables
iii. Confirmatory factor analysis
- It is developing or building model for each latent variable,
determine path coefficient and then model fit Index
iii. Path analysis
 To indicate the direct and indirect effects of predictor variables on the
DV?
 It needs one or more independent/predictor variables, one or more
intermediate variables, and one or more DV.

iv. Structural equation modeling (SEM): Add

covariance, connect latent variables and then estimate the
coefficient to indicate the direct and indirect effects of latent/ predictor
variables
 Any Questions?

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