Unit III Vehicles and Their Specifications

Dr. D. Y.
Patil Pratishthan’s
Dr. D. Y. Patil Institute of Engineering, Management and
Research, Akurdi Pune-44
Prof. Shrikant Prakash Nawale
SUBJECT : SYSTEMS IN MECHANICAL ENGINEERING (FE 2019)
Unit No. 3 : Vehicles and their Specifications
Syllabus:
Classification of automobile. Vehicle specifications of two/three wheeler, light motor
vehicles, trucks, buses and multi-axle vehicles. Engine components (Introduction). Study
of engine specifications, comparison of specifications of vehicles. Introduction of Electric
and Hybrid Vehicles. Cost analysis of the Vehicle.
Prof. S.P. Nawale Subject : Systems in Mechanical Engineering (SPPU)

Vehicles and their Specifications
 Introduction of Automobile or Vehicle
 You must have heard the word automobile. The meaning of automobile can be an
auto car, motor car or car. It is a wheeled motor vehicle used for transporting
goods or passengers, which also carries its own engine or motor.
 The word AUTOMOBILE comes from the ancient Greek word αὐτός (autós,
meaning ‘self’) and the Latin word mobilis (movable), therefore automobile means
a vehicle that moves itself.
 The alternative name, ‘CAR’ is believed to have originated from the Latin word
carrus or carrum (wheeled vehicle), or the Middle English word carre (cart) (from
Old North French).
 These words in turn are said to have originated from the Gaulish word karros (a
Gallic chariot).
 An Automobile is a self propelled vehicle which contains the power source for its
propulsion and is used for carrying passengers and goods on the ground, such as
car, bus, trucks, etc.

 INVENTION OF AUTOMOBILES
 In the year 1672, the very first such model (Fig. 1) was developed in the form of a toy. This was actually a
steam engine, in which the power of steam was used to provide momentum to the toy.
 Further improvements continued in various parts of the world. Then in the year 1806, the first car
(Fig. 2) powered by an internal combustion engine appeared. The fuel used for running this was ‘fuel
gas’ instead of ‘steam’. The process of using fuel gas is different from that of steam. Steam engine
requires ‘external combustion’, whereas fuel gas uses the principle of ‘internal combustion’.
 Meanwhile, engineers continued to improve designs till the year 1885 when the first modern gasoline-or
petrol fuelled engine was developed in Europe. Karl Benz, a German engineer designed and patented
the first practical model in 1885.
Fig. 3: Photograph of the original

Fig. 1: Cugnot Steam trolley Fig. 2: First practical car model Benz Patent - Motorwagen
 Types of Automobile
 The Indian automotive industry is one of the biggest in the world and growing
rapidly globally.
 The Indian automobile industry produced 2,90,75,605 vehicles including passenger
vehicles, commercial vehicles, three-wheelers, two-wheelers and quadricycle in
April-March 2018 as against 2,53,30,967 in April-March 2017, registering a growth
of 14.78 per cent over the same period last year.
 In terms of the global ranking in manufacturing output, India is the second largest
in two-wheelers, eighth largest in commercial vehicle, sixth largest in passenger
cars and the largest in tractors.
 The automobile segment comprises the following four broad categories of
vehicles.
1. Two-wheelers and three-wheelers
2. Passenger vehicles
3. Commercial vehicles
4. Special application vehicles
The automobiles are classified by the following ways,
1. On the Basis of Load:
a) Heavy transport vehicle (HTV) or heavy motor vehicle (HMV),
b) Light transport vehicle (LTV), Light motor vehicle (LMV),
2. On the Basis of Wheels :
1. Two wheeler vehicle, for example : Scooter, motorcycle, scooty, etc.
2. Three wheeler vehicle, for example : Autorickshaw,
3. Three wheeler scooter for handicaps and tempo, etc.
4. Four wheeler vehicle, for example : Car, jeep, trucks, buses, etc.
5. Six wheeler vehicle, for example : Big trucks with two gear axles.
3. On the basis of Fuel Used:
1. Petrol vehicle, e.g. motorcycle, scooter, cars, etc.
2. Diesel vehicle, e.g. trucks, buses, etc.
3. Electric vehicle which use battery to drive.
4. Steam vehicle, e.g. an engine which uses steam engine.
5. Gas vehicle, e.g. LPG and CNG vehicles, where LPG is liquefied
4. On the basis of body style:
1. Sedan Hatchback car.
2. Coupe car Station wagon Convertible.
3. Van Special purpose vehicle, e.g. ambulance, milk van, etc.
The automobiles are classified by the following ways,
5. On the basis of Transmission:
a) Conventional vehicles with manual transmission, e.g. car with 5 gears.
b) Semi-automatic
c) Automatic : In automatic transmission, gears are not required to be changed manually.
6. On the basis of Drive:
a) Left hand drive
b) Right hand drive
7. On the basis of Driving Axle
a) Front wheel drive
b) Rear wheel drive
c) All wheel drive
8. Position of Engine:
a) Engine in Front - Most of the vehicles have engine in the front. Example : most of the cars,
b) Engine in the Rear Side Very few vehicles have engine located in the rear. Example : Nano car.

 TWO-WHEELERS AND THREE-WHEELERS
1. Two-wheelers
• As the name suggests, two-wheeler refers to vehicles that run on two wheels (see Fig.
2.1). Two-wheelers are used all over the world.
Fig 4 : Different Types of Two Wheelers

1. Two-wheelers
• In developed, rich countries, two-wheelers are used more for recreational purpose,
whereas in our country it is an important means of transportation of passengers, both in
urban as well as rural areas.
• India has the largest population of two-wheelers. More than 5.4 million two-wheelers are
produced in our country every year. Motorcycles, scooters and mopeds are the categories
of two-wheelers used in our country. Motorcycles account for about 78 % in the two-
wheeler segment. Remaining 22 % comprise scooters and mopeds.
• India is the second largest manufacturer of two-wheelers in the world. In the last few
years, the Indian two-wheeler industry has seen massive growth. The country stands next
to China and Japan in terms of production and sales, respectively.
• You must have seen various types of two-wheelers in your locality or on the roads. Every
two-wheeler has a sticker of its model type and name of the manufacturer. You can
identify the make of the two-wheeler by the sticker or logo fixed on its body.
• Two-wheeler manufacturers produce different models each with different specifications.
Popular brands of two-wheeler manufacturers are Hero, Honda, Bajaj, TVS and Suzuki.

1. Two-wheelers
• Some of their popular models include
 Hero — Impulse, Splendor, CDdawn, Pleasure, Passion Plus
 Bajaj — Pulsar, Discover, Platina
 TVS — Apache, Star, Scooty Streak, Scooty Pep, Star City
 Honda — Activa, Dio, Aviator
 Suzuki — Access, Intruder M800, Zeus
• These models vary in size, weight, dimension type and engine capacity.

ENERGY CONVERSION DEVICES
2. Three Wheelers
• A three-wheeler is a vehicle (Figs 2.2 and 2.3) with three wheels, either ‘human - or
people-powered vehicles’ (HPV or PPV) or motored vehicles in the form of a tri-
motorcycle, all-terrain vehicle (ATV) or automobile.
Fig 5 : Autorickshaw Fig 6 : Battery Powered Three Wheeler

2. Three Wheelers
• Autorickshaws (often called auto) are common all over India, and provide cheap and
efficient transportation. Autorickshaws are found in villages, cities and in the countryside.
• The new autorickshaws operate on CNG (Compressed Natural Gas) and are environment-
friendly.
• The average mileage of an Indian-made autorickshaw is around 35 kilometres per litre of
petrol.
• Important autorickshaw manufacturers in India are Mahindra & Mahindra, Piaggio Ape,
TVS Motors, Bajaj Auto, Kerala Auto Limited and Force Motors (previously Bajaj Tempo).
• Mostly, two types of autorickshaws are used in India — the older versions in which the
engine is fitted below the driver’s seat, and the newer versions in which the engine is
fitted in the rear portion.
• These autorickshaws run well on petrol, CNG and diesel.
• A three-wheeler autorickshaw can accommodate four persons including the driver. Some
parts of Maharashtra have six-seater rickshaws. In cities and towns across India,
autorickshaw is the backbone of city transport.

 Light Motor Vehicles (PASSENGER VEHICLES)
• A passenger vehicle refers to a machine that can carry a person or a group of persons.
• There are different types of passenger vehicles like cars, jeeps, tempos, etc. You must have
seen various models of passenger vehicles in your village, town or city. You must have also
travelled in these passenger vehicles.
• The details of some of the popular models of cars, buses, jeep and tempos have been
illustrated below.
 CAR
• A motor car or car is a vehicle used for transporting passengers, which also carries its own
engine or motor. Various popular cars in India are by Maruti Suzuki, Tata Motors, Hyundai,
Honda, Mahindra, Datsun, Volkswagen, Suzuki, etc.
• Nowadays, various car manufacturers of international level have established in our
country and have started production of cars here.

 Light Motor Vehicles (PASSENGER VEHICLES)
 JEEP
• Jeep is the oldest vehicle used as an off-road
vehicle. Willys Overland produced the first Jeep.
• It is the marque of the brand Chrysler. It has
excellent off-road capabilities, and although it
was designed primarily to aid military
requirements, the company started producing
civilian models too by changing the design.
• Various changes under different leaderships
were also made.
• Jeep is now part of the Chrysler Group LLC
which is under Fiat Italy. The company
celebrated its 70th anniversary in 2011. Jeep is
found in many countries around the world, and Fig 7 : Jeep
the popular models are Jeep Grand Cherokee,
Jeep Patriot, Jeep Compass, Jeep Liberty, Jeep
Commander and Jeep Wrangler (Fig. 7).
 Truck, Buses and Multi-axle Vehicles (COMMERCIAL VEHICLES)
• A commercial vehicle is a type of motor vehicle that is generally used for transporting
goods as well as passengers. Commercial vehicles support the trade, commerce and
industry of a country in a major way.
• Vehicles falling under this category are mainly buses and trucks (Fig. 8). They help in
transportation of goods, shipping and handling of various commodities and so on.
• The future of companies manufacturing these vehicles is quite bright in view of India’s
growing commercial sector.
Fig 8 : Commercial Vehicles

 BUS
• A bus is a huge commercial vehicle, said to have originated in France in the year
1826 designed by Stanislas Baudry under the name of ‘Omnibus’.
• The main purpose of this vehicle is to carry the passengers as it is a cost-effective
medium of transportation.
• The major producers of buses in India are Ashok Leyland and Tata Motors, Swaraj
Mazda, Volvo and Hindustan Motors. These companies have made a big name in
manufacturing mini bus too.
• The various sub-categories of buses like commuter buses, school buses and electric
buses are also available.
• In India, CNG buses are more popular due to fuel efficiency and being
environment-friendly vehicles

 TRUCKS
• Trucks (Fig. 8) are used for carrying goods and material in bulk.
• As per size and functional use, trucks are classified into sub-categories — rigid
trucks, tippers, haulage, cabs, delivery vans and trailers.
• The fuel efficiency of these vehicles have improved in the past few years.
• The major truck manufacturers in India are Ashok Leyland, Tata Motors, Eicher and
Swaraj Mazda.

 SPECIFICATIONS For Vehicles / Cars
 Car specifications, or car specs, provide a snapshot of a vehicle's important details
and are commonly displayed by a car dealer at the dealership. This information
might be a printout attached to a car window or given to you as a handout when
you inquire about a specific car. Understanding these specs and how they can
affect you as the potential owner of the vehicle can help you save time and ensure
you get the right car for your lifestyle.
 Car specs typically fall into the loose categories of
1. Construction
2. Operation, and
3. Performance.
 CONSTRUCTION SPECS can include basic dimensional factors like height and
weight, as well as deeper details like the car's wheelbase and cargo capacity.
Operation specs include features such as air conditioning, cruise control and
seating materials. Performance specs indicate how the vehicle can be expected to
drive and, yes, perform. These can include fuel economy and the vehicle's turning
radius.
 CONSTRUCTION SPECS are often presented as a simple block of data. Lighter
vehicles are often easier on fuel, but may not always have the power or traction
of more heavy-duty versions. A vehicle's height might be of concern if you
regularly drive under bridges or through short drive-through locations. This is a
major factor for drivers of large trucks or vans. Other commonly reported
information includes vehicle length and ground clearance. These are important for
those driving off-road.
 OPERATION SPECS often include optional features. Air conditioning, audio

systems, leather seating, and similar amenities are often self-explanatory. The
block of safety features is important for family buyers. It will note child safety
locks, power door locks, airbags, the braking system, and power windows, among
other features. Many car spec sheets will list all available features and place
checkmarks next to the features actually included in that particular vehicle. Make
sure you verify that the checkmarks line up with the features you want.
 PERFORMANCE SPECS are important to those who want to get the most power
out of their vehicles or know exactly what fuel economy to expect. Such specs
include the estimated miles per gallon consumption for both highway and city
travel. The type of engine will also appear here, along with the transmission.
Vehicles with automatic transmissions are more common in America these days.
The specs in this block also are likely to indicate key measurements of engine
performance, such as horsepower and torque, and may even proclaim the
compression ratio, which is very important to mechanics working on the engine.
 Paying close attention to car specs will save your time and money when it's time
to purchase the new car. Knowing the differences in engine type, transmission
type, and safety features in vehicles can ensure that you get the right car for your
personal, business, or family use.

 Engine Nomenclature:
 Terms connected with I.C. engines;
1. Bore () : The inside diameter of the cylinder is called bore
2. Stroke () : The linear distance along the cylinder axis between two limiting
position s is called stroke.
3. Top Dead Center ( T.D.C.) : the top most position of the piston towards cover
end side of the cylinder is called T.D.C.
4. Bottom dead Center ( B.D.C.) : The lowest position of the piston towards the
crank end side of the cylinder is called B.D.C.
5. Clearance Volume () : The volume contained in the cylinder above the top of
the piston , when the piston is at top dead center , is called the clearance
volume.
6. Swept Volume (): The volume swept through by the piston in moving between
T.D.C. and B.D.C, is called swept volume or piston displacement.
7. Compression Ratio () : It is the ratio of Total cylinder volume to clearance
volume
 Engine Components:
 An engine is a device, which transforms one form
of energy into another form. Normally, most of the
engines convert thermal energy into mechanical
work and therefore they are called ‘heat engines’.
 A cross-section of an air-cooled I.C. engine with
principal parts is shown in Fig. (Air-cooled I.C.
engine).
A. Parts common to both Petrol and Diesel engine:
1. Cylinder, 2. Cylinder head, 3. Piston, 4. Piston
rings, 5. Gudgeon pin, 6. Connecting rod, 7.
Crankshaft, 8. Crank, 9. Engine bearing, 10.
Crank case. 11. Flywheel, 12. Governor, 13.
Valves and valve operating mechanism.
B. Parts for Petrol engines only:
1. Spark plug, 2. Carburettor, 3. Fuel pump.
C. Parts for Diesel engine only :
1. Fuel pump, 2. Injector. Fig : Cross-Section of an Air-Cooled I.C. Engine
 Engine Components – Introduction
 It is an engine in which combustion of fuel take place inside the engine. When the
fuel burns inside the engine cylinder, it generates a high temperature and
pressure. This high-pressure force is exerted on the piston (A device which free to
moves inside the cylinder and transmit the pressure force to crank by use of
connecting rod), which used to rotate the wheels of vehicle. In these engines we
can use only gases and high volatile fuel like petrol, diesel. These engines are
generally used in automobile industries, generation of electric power etc.
 Advantages of I.C. engine
1. It has overall high efficiency over E.C. engine.
2. These engines are compact and required less space.
3. Initial cost of I.C. engine is lower than E.C. engine.
4. This engine easily starts in cold because of it uses high volatile fuel.

Fig : Engine Components

1. Cylinder block
 Cylinder is the main body of IC engine. Cylinder is a part in which the intake of fuel, compression
of fuel and burning of fuel take place. The main function of cylinder is to guide the piston. It is in
direct contact with the products of combustion so it must be cooled. For cooling of cylinder, a
water jacket (for liquid cooling used in most of cars) or fin (for air cooling used in most of bikes)
are situated at the outer side of cylinder. At the upper end of cylinder, cylinder head and at the
bottom end crank case is bolted. The upper side of cylinder is consisting a combustion chamber
where fuel burns. To handle all this pressure and temperature generated by combustion of fuel,
cylinder material should have high compressive strength. So it is made by high grade cast iron. It
is made by casting and usually cast in one piece.
2. Cylinder head
 The top end of the engine cylinder is closed by means of removable cylinder head. There are two
holes or ports at the cylinder head, one for intake of fuel and other for exhaust. Both the intake
and exhaust ports are closed by the two valves known as inlet and exhaust valve. The inlet
valve, exhaust valve, spark plug, injector etc. are bolted on the cylinder head. The main function
of cylinder head is to seal the cylinder block and not to permit entry and exit of gases on cover
head valve engine. Cylinder head is usually made by cast iron or aluminum. It is made by casting
or forging and usually in one piece.

3. Piston
 A piston is fitted to each cylinder as a face to receive gas pressure and transmit the thrust to the
connecting rod. It is a prime mover in the engine. The main function of piston is to give tight seal
to the cylinder through bore and slide freely inside the cylinder. Piston should be light and
sufficient strong to handle gas pressure generated by combustion of fuel. So the piston is made
by aluminum alloy and sometimes it is made by cast iron because light alloy piston expands
more than cast iron so they need more clearances to the bore.
4. Cylinder
 It is one of the most important part of the engine, in which the piston moves to and fro in order
to develop power.
 The engine cylinder has to withstand a high pressure (more than 50 bar) and temperature (more
than 2000 °C). Thus the material for the engine cylinder should be such that it can retain
sufficient strength at such a high pressure and temperature. For ordinary engines, the cylinder is
made of ordinary cast iron. But for heavy duty engines, it is made of steel alloys or aluminum
alloys.
 Sometimes, a liner or sleeve is inserted into the cylinder, which can be replaced when worn out.
As the material required for liner is comparatively small, it cab be made of alloy cast iron having
long life and sufficient resistance to rapid wear and tear to the fast moving reciprocating parts.

5. Connecting Rod
 Connecting rod connects the piston to crankshaft and transmits the motion and thrust of piston
to crankshaft. It converts the reciprocating motion of the piston into rotary motion of
crankshaft. There are two end of connecting rod; one is known as big end and other as small
end. Big end is connected to the crankshaft and the small end is connected to the piston by use
of piston pin. The connecting rods are made of nickel, chrome, and chrome vanadium steels. For
small engines the material may be aluminum.
Fig : Connecting Rod

6. Crankshaft
 The crankshaft of an internal combustion engine receives the efforts or thrust supplied by piston
to the connecting rod and converts the reciprocating motion of piston into rotary motion of
crankshaft. The crankshaft mounts in bearing so it can rotate freely. The shape and size of
crankshaft depends on the number and arrangement of cylinders. It is usually made by steel
forging, but some makers use special types of cast-iron such as spheroidal graphitic or nickel
alloy castings which are cheaper to produce and have good service life.
7. Engine Bearing
 Everywhere there is rotary action in the engine, bearings are needed. Bearings are used to
support the moving parts. The crankshaft is supported by bearing. The connecting rod big end is
attached to the crank pin on the crank of the crankshaft by a bearing. A piston pin at the small
end is used to attach the rod to the piston is also rides in bearings. The main function of bearings
is to reduce friction between these moving parts. In an IC engine sliding and rolling types of
bearing used. The sliding type bearing which are sometime called bush is use to attach the
connecting rod to the piston and crankshaft. They are split in order to permit their assembly into
the engine. The rolling and ball bearing is used to support crankshaft so it can rotate freely. The
typical bearing half is made of steel or bronze back to which a lining of relatively soft bearing
material is applied.

8. Crankcase
 The main body of the engine at which the cylinder are attached and which contains the
crankshaft and crankshaft bearing is called crankcase. It serves as the lubricating system too and
sometime it is called oil sump. All the oil for lubrication is placed in it.
9. Valves
 To control the inlet and exhaust of internal combustion engine, valves are used. The number of
valves in an engine depends on the number of cylinders. Two valves are used for each cylinder
one for inlet of air-fuel mixture inside the cylinder and other for exhaust of combustion gases.
The valves are fitted in the port at the cylinder head by use of strong spring. This spring keep
them closed. Both valves usually open inwards.
10. Spark Plug
 It is used in spark ignition engine. The main function of a spark plug is to conduct a high
potential from the ignition system into the combustion chamber to ignite the compressed air
fuel mixture. It is fitted on cylinder head. The spark plug consists of a metal shell having two
electrodes which are insulated from each other with an air gap. When high potential current
supply to spark plug it jumping from the supply electrode and produces the necessary spark.

11. Injector
 Injector is usually used in compression ignition engine. It sprays the fuel into combustion
chamber at the end of compression stroke. It is fitted on cylinder head.
12. Manifold
 The main function of manifold is to supply the air fuel mixture and collects the exhaust gases
equally from all cylinder. In an internal combustion engine two manifold are used, one for intake
and other for exhaust. They are usually made by aluminum alloy.
13. Camshaft
 Camshaft is used in IC engine to control the opening and closing of valves at proper timing. For
proper engine output inlet valve should open at the end of exhaust stroke and closed at the end
of intake stroke. So to regulate its timing, a cam is use which is oval in shape and it exerts a
pressure on the valve to open and release to close. It is drive by the timing belt which drives by
crankshaft. It is placed at the top or at the bottom of cylinder.
14. Gudgeon Pin o Piston Pin
 These are hardened steel parallel spindles fitted through the piston bosses and the small end
bushes or eyes to allow the connecting rods to swivel. It connects the piston to connecting rod.
It is made hollow for lightness.

15. Pushrod
 Pushrod is used when the camshaft is situated at the bottom end of cylinder. It carries the
camshaft motion to the valves which are situated at the cylinder head.
16. Flywheel
 A flywheel is secured on the crankshaft. The main function of flywheel is to rotate the shaft
during preparatory stroke. It also makes crankshaft rotation more uniform.
17. Piston Rings
 A piston must be a fairly loose fit in the cylinder so it can move freely inside the cylinder. If the
piston is too tight fit, it would expand as it got hot and might stick tight in the cylinder and if it is
too loose it would leaks the vapour pressure. To provide a good sealing fit and less friction
resistance between the piston and cylinder, pistons are equipped with piston rings. These rings
are fitted in grooves which have been cut in the piston. They are split at one end so they can
expand or slipped over the end of piston. A small two stroke engine has two piston rings to
provide good sealing but a four-stroke engine has an extra ring which is known as oil ring. Piston
rings are made of cast iron of fine grain and high elastic material which is not affected by the
working heat. Sometimes it is made by alloy spring steel.

Fig : Engine Sectional view

 Study of Engine Specifications:
 Now we move on to the Engine specifications sheet terms pertaining to the heart
of your vehicle, the engine. The first aspect we will discuss here is the engine
configuration. The configuration broadly describes the layout and orientation of
the primary components present in the engine.
1. Number of Cylinders
2. Number of Valves
3. Valve train Type
4. Displacement
5. Max Torque
6. Max Power
7. Drivetrain Type
8. Transmission (Type and Speed)
9. Cooling Type
10. Firing order
11. Fuel Supply System
12. Mild Hybrid
 Study of Engine Specifications:

 Tata Nexon Engine Sr. No. Engine Features Details
1. Engine Type 1.5 L Revotorq Turbocharged
Specifications (XZA Plus DT
2. Fast Charging NO
Roof (O) Diesel AMT
3. Displacement (cc) 1497Max
(Diesel) 12.79 Lakh*):
4. Power 108.5bhp@4000rpmMax
5. Torque 260Nm@1500-2750rpm
6. No. of cylinder 4
7. Valves Per Cylinder 2
8. Valve Configuration DOHC
9. Fuel Supply System CRDI
10. Bore X Stroke 77 cm x 85.8 cm
11. Turbo Charger YES
12. Super Charge NO
13. Transmission Type Automatic
14. Gear Box 6 Speed
15. Mild Hybrid NO
16 Drive Type FWD

 Comparison of Specifications of Vehicles
 Comparison of Vehicle Specifications for 150 cc with gear 5 models
Vehicle Specification Parameter Model 1 Model 2 Model 3 Model 4 Model 5
Bore * Stroke
Displacement

Introduction of Electric and Hybrid Vehicles
 Introduction to Electric Vehicles
 An electric vehicle, also called an electric drive vehicle, uses one or more electric motors or traction
motors for propulsion. An electric vehicle may be powered through a collector system by electricity
from off-vehicle sources, or may be self-contained with a battery, solar panels or a generator to
convert fuel to electricity. EVs include road and rail vehicles, surface and underwater vessels,
electric aircraft and electric spacecraft.
 EVs first came into existence in the mid-19th century, when electricity was among the preferred
methods for motor vehicle propulsion, providing a level of comfort and ease of operation that
could not be achieved by the gasoline cars of the time. The internal combustion engine has been
the dominant propulsion method for motor vehicles for almost 100 years, but electric power has
remained commonplace in other vehicle types, such as trains and smaller vehicles of all types.
 Growing concerns over the limited supply of fossil-based fuels are motivating intense activity in the
search for alternative road transportation propulsion systems. In addition, regulatory pressures to
reduce urban pollution, emissions and city noise have made plug-in electric vehicles a very
attractive choice as the alternative to the internal combustion engine.
 Electric vehicles (EVs) use an electric motor for traction, and chemical batteries, fuel cells, ultra
capacitors, and/or flywheels for their corresponding energy sources.
 The electric vehicle has many advantages over the conventional internal combustion engine vehicle
(ICEV), such as an absence of emissions, high efficiency, independence from petroleum, and quiet
and smooth operation.
 Introduction to Electric Vehicles
 The operational and fundamental principles in EVs and ICEVs are
similar. There are, however, some differences between ICEVs and EVs,
such as the use of gasoline tanks vs. batteries, ICE vs. electric motor,
and different transmission requirements.
 According to a forecast by International Energy Agency, the use of
Electric Vehicles will grow from 3 million to 125 million by the year
2030. That is almost 41 times of what it is today, with the increasing
demand of fossil fuel and problems with pollution it seems most likely
to happen. Owing to that, all major IC Engine Car manufacturers like
Ford and GM are slowly turning their attention towards the Electric
Vehicles. The market and consumers are in need for a cheaper
personal transportation and even on top of that, the government has
started supporting Electric Vehicles through its policies. Considering all
these facts it is pretty much evident that very soon we will find Electric
Cars zooming all around our Roads
 This change has already begun to show symptoms. In the past few
years there have emerged many successful Electric Vehicle
manufactures like Tesla, Kia Soul, Navistar and Kandi to name a few. Fig 4.1: Block Diagram of Electric
And because of them there have also been many technology
Vehicle
breakthroughs in the area of batteries and motors of an Electric
Vehicle.
 Configurations of Electric Vehicles
 Previously, the EV was mainly converted from the existing ICEV by
replacing the internal combustion engine and fuel tank with an
electric motor drive and battery pack while retaining all the other
components, as shown
 in Figure 4.1. Drawbacks such as its heavy weight, lower flexibility,
and performance degradation have caused the use of this type of
EV to fade out.
 In its place, the modern EV is built based on original body and
frame designs. This satisfies the structure requirements unique to
EVs and makes use of the greater flexibility of electric propulsion.
 A modern electric drive train is conceptually illustrated in Figure
4.2 The drive train consists of three major subsystems: electric
motor propulsion, energy source, and auxiliary. The electric
propulsion subsystem is comprised of a vehicle controller, power Fig 4.1: Primary Electric Vehicle
electronic converter, electric motor, mechanical transmission, and Power Train
driving wheels. The energy source subsystem involves the energy
source, the energy management unit, and the energy refuelling
unit. The auxiliary subsystem consists of the power steering unit,
the hotel climate control unit, and the auxiliary supply unit.
Fig 4.1: Conceptual Illustration Of General EV Configuration

 Based on the control inputs from the accelerator and brake pedals, the vehicle controller provides
proper control signals to the electronic power converter, which functions to regulate the power
flow between the electric motor and energy source.
 The backward power flow is due to the regenerative braking of the EV and this regenerated
energy can be restored to the energy source, provided the energy source is receptive. Most EV
batteries as well as ultra capacitors and flywheels readily possess the ability to accept regenerated
energy.
 The energy management unit cooperates with the vehicle controller to control the regenerative
braking and its energy recovery.
 It also works with the energy refuelling unit to control the refuelling unit, and to monitor the
usability of the energy source.
 The auxiliary power supply provides the necessary power at different voltage levels for all the EV
auxiliaries, especially the hotel climate control and power steering units.
 A vehicle’s driving performance is usually evaluated by its acceleration time, maximum speed, and
gradeability. In EV drive train design, proper motor power rating and transmission parameters are
the primary considerations to meet the performance specification. The design of all these
parameters depends mostly on the speed–power (torque) characteristics of the traction motor.

 What makes an Electric Car?
 An Electric Car is an automobile by itself and consists of many components and a large cluster of
wires connecting them all. But there are few basic bare minimum materials for an Electric Car
which is shown in the block diagram below.
 The Engine of a conventional IC Engine Car is replaced by an electrical Motor and the fuel tank is
replaced by the Battery Pack. Of all the components only the Battery Pack and Motor alone
contributes to about more than 50% of the total cars weight and the price. As you can see the
Battery Pack, Battery Management System (BMS) Controller, Motor and the Transmission unit
forms the major components in an EV.
 Vital Parts of an Electric Car
 The Battery Pack is the fuel source of the car, since there are hundreds of cells arranged to
form a battery pack a special circuit is required to monitor these cells, this circuit is called as
the Battery Monitoring circuit. The DC voltage from battery cannot be used to drive a motor
so we need the controller which drives the motor, and the Transmission system transfers the
rotational energy from motor on to the wheels through some gear arrangements. Let’s look
into each Part in details to understand more on EV’s.

 Important Parts of Electric Car
1. EV Batteries
 Batteries are the fuel source for Electric Cars, but it is also important to know that batteries
are not the only source of fuels. There are other alternatives to power an EV like a Fuel cell or
Super capacitors but both of them are still in development stage and no commercial cars on
the road use them. So let us focus only on Battery Operated EV in this article.
 The first think you should know about batteries in EV is that, unlike your mobile phone which
has only one battery EV’s are powered by hundreds if not thousands of batteries joined
together as a pack. To give you an idea the Tesla has 7000 batteries and the Chevrolet spark
has 600 Batteries inside them. The complete battery anarchy consists of the Cell, Battery
Module and Battery Pack.

2. Cell
 The cell refers to a single battery. There many different sizes and shapes for a cell based on the
chemistry. Most commonly used chemistry is the Lead-Acid Batteries and Lithium Batteries. These
batteries are available in many different shapes like cylindrical, Coin, Prismatic and Flat type few of
which are shown below.
 The voltage rating of the cells (per cell) will be anywhere from 3.7V for a lithium batteries and a
maximum of 12V for Lead-Acid batteries. But, as you might have guessed this voltage is not enough to
run an electric car. The Tesla for example has a battery pack voltage of 356 Voltas and even for a normal
electric bi-cycle we need a minimum of 36V so how do we get this higher voltage from lithium cells that
are only 3.7V?

3. Battery Module
 So to get the higher voltage from 3.7v lithium cells, battery packs are used which are formed by combining more
than one battery together. When two batteries are connected in series their voltage ratings is added and when two
batteries are connected in parallel their Ah rating is added. For example assume we have 3.7V 2000mAh Lithium
batteries. If you connect two of these in series the resulting system is called a module and this module will have
7.4V 2000mAh. Likewise if we connect two of these in parallel the resulting module will be 3.7V 4000mAh.
 A single lithium cell voltage and Ah rating is not enough to drive an EV, so these cells are connected in series and
parallel configuration to increase the resulting system voltage. This pack is called as a module. For people who are
new to batteries the term Ah might be confusing there are lot of such parameters related to batteries which we will
cover in a separate article. For now you can think of Ah as the fuel range of an EV more the Ah more the mileage
we can get out of the EV.
Fig 4.1: Lithium and Lead Acid Battery Module

4. Battery Pack
 Once the system Voltage and Ah rating is obtained by combining
various modules in series and parallel configuration this set-up
should be placed inside the EV. But it is not so easy; the reason is -
its complexity. Lithium cells are unstable in nature any mishap like
short circuit or excess charging or discharging can make there
batteries get very hot leading to fire or explosion. So the voltage
current and temperature of each cell should be monitored for a
safe operation. The duty of monitoring the cells during the
charging and discharging procedure is given to the circuit called
Battery Management system or BMS for short. We will get deep
into it later.
 So, once the battery modulus is ready it should be connected to
the BMS and a cooling system for safe operation of battery. The
complete set-up is kept in a steel casing to prevent mechanical
damage. This complete arrangement along with the BMS, cooling
system casing and the battery modules all together is called as a
Battery Pack of a car. These packs will normally be big and occupy
the entire floor areas of an EV as shown in the picture below. This
image is of the Nissan Leaf cut half way for you to give an idea.
5. Battery Management System
 Now that we have known about Batteries in EV the follow up would be to know about battery
Management system. A BMS is like the brain or caretaker of batteries, as we saw earlier there
are many batteries in an EV and each battery has to be monitored to ensure safety. For Lead
Acid batteries BMS is not mandatory although some people use it but for Lithium cells due to
its unstable nature BMS becomes essential.
 Almost all lithium cells come with their own protection circuit if they are used in consumer
electronics. This is because if they are not handled properly, like overcharging or over
discharging then the battery would get hot and might even burn. The circuit simply monitors
the cell voltage or current and breaks the connection to the load if it exceeds safe limits.
 Every BMS measures only three vital parameters of the battery which are the Voltage, current
and Temperate of the cell. It constantly compares these values with safety limits and
disconnects the load if they exceed the threshold values. Apart from safety purpose the BMS
is also used for some computational purpose, like measuring the SOC and SOH of a battery.

5. Battery Management System
 SOC stands for Sate of Charge and SOH stands for State of health. Unlike an ICE Car the
amount of fuel left in the battery cannot be measured by directly look at it. Some people
even think that measuring the voltage across the terminals of the battery can give you the
battery capacity, well it’s not true and it is not that easy. Similarly SOH gives the life
expectancy of the battery. Both SOC and SOH are vital information for a consumer since SOC
tells you how far you can drive before recharge and SOH tells you when it’s time to replace
your batteries. It is the duty of the BMS to measure both these parameters. How does this
measuring take place is totally a different story and we will cover in a separate article.
 BMS circuits are often complex, a simple 4 Cell Lithium BMS is shown in the picture below.
Imagine the BMS of a car that has to monitor around 7000 cell.

6. Electric Vehicle Motors
 While batteries are the fuel tanks of an EV, the motors are the Engines of them. There are
many types of Motors used in EV and the one used for Scooters and bikes is totally different
form the one that is used in cars. Let’s have a quick look on the commonly used ones that are
BLDC motors, Brushed DC motors and AC Induction Motor. A more detailed article on EV
motors will be covered later.
 BLDC Motors: BLDC Motors have been the choice for EV’s from its origin in 1900. Even today it
is commonly used in Electric cycles and scooters. BLDC stands for Brush Less DC motor, these
motors have a constant torque and fast response making it suitable for automotive
applications. Apart from EV’s these motors are also used in wipers, power windows etc. The
BLDC motor for EV can again be classified into the following two types
1. BLDC Hub Motors
2. AC Induction Motors

7. Controller
 There is a very good chance that this question already struck you. We know EV runs on
battery which are DC powered and we have motors that run on three phase AC. How will
both of these work together? This job is taken car by the Controller, from a basic bi-cycle till a
Tesla Roadster every EV has its own controller that converts the DC voltage from the Battery
to a suitable level for the Motors to run. It also controls the speed of the motor.
 The controller gets all the inputs form the user like the amount of throttle (acceleration),
breaks pressure, driving mode etc and controls the speed of the motor accordingly. If motors
are considered to the muscle of a car, controller is its brain. A controller is often a generic
term and it might include other circuits like a DC-DC converter, Speed controller, Inverter etc.
The DC-DC converter is used to power all the peripherals of the car like the infotainment
system, Headlights and other low level electronic devices.
 Apart from this the controller also takes care of regenerative braking. It is the process of
converting kinetic energy into electric energy. That is when the EV runs down a slope the
motor are rotating freely due to the kinetic energy, at this situation the motors can be made
to act as a generator so that the power thus obtained can be used to charge the batteries.
Most modern day EV’s have this but its performance and functionality is still debatable.

8. Charger
 Another important component in an EV which requires advancement is the Chargers. An average E-Car takes a
minimum of 5 hours to get charge that combined with its very low mileage becomes a disaster. An average
American drives more than 50km per day, in this scenario an EV which gives a rage of 90km for full charge has to
get charged almost every day. This makes the charges a most used component.
 It gets plugged into the AC mains and converts the AC to DC to charge the batteries. But there are more to add to it.
Charging is a process in which the batteries and charger should coexist you cannot push current inside a battery if
the battery is not ready to accept it. There are many types of chargers; the most common types are discussed
below.
 Level 1 Charger: These are the most basic chargers and it is probably the one that you get along with your car.
They take a long time to charge the batteries since they operate in 120V AC, They convert this 120V AC to DC
and use it to charge the batteries. The current rating of the charger will also be low somewhere near 8-10 A,
this means you will be sending less current and thus taking a long time to charge your batteries overnight. On
the positive side, this method improves the life cycle of the battery since our charging current is less.
 Level 2 Charger: These are a bit faster that Level 1 charger, it depends on the manufacturer to provide you with
Level 1 or Level 2 charger. Level 2 chargers operate on higher voltages like 240V or above and also have high
current rating near 40A to 50A. This makes the car to get charged faster.
 Level 3 chargers: Level 3 chargers are the game changers, this are also called as the super chargers or fast
chargers. They can charge your car to 60% of its total capacity within 30 minutes. The downside is that since it
is pushing a lot of current inside your battery like 100A for a Tesla (insane! Yes) the batteries inside would feel
like taking a crash course all year. So eventually the life of the battery is reduced. Also most superchargers do
not charge the batteries till 100% since more time will be required to charge the battery from 80% to 100%
 Introduction to Hybrid Electric Vehicles
 Hybrid electric vehicles (HEV), which use two power sources — a primary power source
and a secondary power source — have the advantages of both ICE vehicles and EV and
overcome their disadvantages.
 Basically, any vehicle power train is required to (1) develop sufficient power to meet the
demands of vehicle performance, (2) carry sufficient energy onboard to support vehicle
driving in the given range, (3) demonstrate high efficiency, and (4) emit few environmental
pollutants. Broadly, a vehicle may have more than one energy source and energy converter
(power source), such as a gasoline (or diesel) heat engine system, hydrogen–fuel cell–
electric motor system, chemical battery–electric motor system, etc. A vehicle that has two
or more energy sources and energy converters is called a hybrid vehicle. A hybrid vehicle
with an electrical power train (energy source energy converters) is called an HEV.
 A hybrid vehicle drive train usually consists of no more than two power trains. More than
two power train configurations will complicate the system. For the purpose of recapturing
part of the braking energy that is dissipated in the form of heat in conventional ICE
vehicles, a hybrid drive train usually has a bidirectional energy source and converter. The
other one is either bidirectional or unidirectional. Figure 5.1 shows the concept of a hybrid
drive train and the possible different power flow routes.
Fig 5.1 : Conceptual Illustration of A Hybrid Electric Drive Train

 Hybrid drive trains supply the required power by an adapted power train. There
are many available patterns of combining the power flows to meet load
requirements as described below:
1. Power train 1 alone delivers power to the load
2. Power train 2 alone delivers power to the load
3. Both power train 1 and 2 deliver power to load at the same time
4. Power train 2 obtains power from load (regenerative braking)
5. Power train 2 obtains power from power train 1
6. Power train 2 obtains power from power train 1 and load at the same time
7. Power train 1 delivers power to load and to power train 2 at the same time
8. Power train 1 delivers power to power train 2, and power train 2 delivers
power to load
9. Power train 1 delivers power to load, and load delivers power to power train
2.

 In the case of hybridization with a liquid fuel-IC engine (power train 1) and a battery-electric
machine (power train 2), pattern (1) is the engine-alone propelling mode. This may be used when
the batteries are almost completely depleted and the engine has no remaining power to charge the
batteries, or when the batteries have been fully charged and the engine is able to supply sufficient
power to meet the power demands of the vehicle. Pattern (2) is the pure electric propelling mode,
in which the engine is shut off. This pattern may be used in situations where the engine cannot
operate effectively, such as very low speed, or in areas where emissions are strictly prohibited.
Pattern (3) is the hybrid traction mode and may be used when a large amount of power is needed,
such as during sharp acceleration or steep hill climbing. Pattern (4) is the regenerative braking
mode, by which the kinetic or potential energy of the vehicle is recovered through the electric
motor functioning as a generator. The recovered energy is stored in the batteries and reused later
on. Pattern (5) is the mode in which the engine charges the batteries while the vehicle is at a
standstill, coasting, or descending a slight grade, in which no power goes into or comes from the
load. Pattern (6) is the mode in which both regenerative braking and the IC engine charge the
batteries simultaneously. Pattern (7) is the mode in which the engine propels the vehicle and
charges the batteries simultaneously. Pattern (8) is the mode in which the engine charges the
batteries, and the batteries supply power to the load. Pattern (9) is the mode in which the power
flows into the batteries from the heat engine through the vehicle mass. The typical configuration of
this mode is two power trains separately mounted on the front and the rear axle of the vehicle.
 The varied operation modes in a hybrid vehicle create more flexibility over a single power train vehicle.
With proper configuration and control, applying the specific mode for each special operating condition
can optimize overall performance, efficiency, and emissions. However, in a practical design, deciding
which mode should be implemented depends on many factors, such as the physical configuration of the
drive train, the power train efficiency characteristics, load characteristics, etc.
 Operating each power train in its optimal efficiency region is essential for the overall efficiency of the
vehicle. An IC engine generally has the best efficiency operating region with a wide throttle opening. .
Operating away from this region will cause the efficiency to suffer a lot. On the other hand, efficiency
suffering in an electric motor is not as detrimental when compared to an IC engine that operates away
from its optimal region.
 The load power of a vehicle varies randomly in real operation due to frequent acceleration, deceleration,
and climbing up and down grades. Actually, the load power is composed of two components: one is
steady (average) power, which has a constant value, and the other is dynamic power, which has a zero
average. In hybrid vehicle strategy, one power train that favours steady-state operation, such as an IC
engine fuel cell, can be used to supply the average power. On the other hand, other power trains such as
an electric motor can be used to supply the dynamic power. The total energy output from the dynamic
power train will be zero in a whole driving cycle. This implies that the energy source of the dynamic
power train does not lose energy capacity at the end of the driving cycle. It functions only as a power
damper.

 Architectures of Hybrid Electric Drive Trains
 The architecture of a hybrid vehicle is loosely defined as the connection between the components
that define the energy flow routes and control ports. Traditionally, HEVs were classified into two
basic types: series and parallel. It is interesting to note that, in 2000, some newly introduced HEVs
could not be classified into these kinds. Therefore, HEVs are now classified into four kinds:
1. Series Hybrid - A series hybrid drive train is a drive train where two power sources feed a
single powerplant (electric motor) that propels the vehicle.
2. Parallel Hybrid - A parallel hybrid drive train is a drive train in which the engine supplies its
power mechanically to the wheels like in a conventional ICE-powered vehicle. It is assisted by
an electric motor that is mechanically coupled to the transmission. The powers of the engine
and electric motor are coupled together by mechanical coupling.
3. Series–parallel Hybrid
4. Complex Hybrid
 In Figure a fuel tank-IC engine and a battery-electric motor are taken, respectively, as examples of
the primary power source (steady power source) and secondary power source (dynamic power
source). Of course, the IC engine can be replaced by other types of power sources, such as fuel
cells. Similarly, the batteries can be replaced by ultracapacitors or by flywheels and their
combinations,

 Architectures of Hybrid Electric Drive Trains
Fig : Classification of Hybrid Electric Vehicles (HEV)

 Cost analysis of the Vehicle
 Vehicle Costs include various costs to own and use vehicles, and incremental equipment
costs for telework. These indicate the savings that result when vehicle ownership and use
are reduced.
 These costs are divided into fixed (also called ownership) and variable (also called
operating, marginal or incremental) costs, as indicated below. Variable costs increase with
vehicle mileage, fixed costs do not.
A. Fixed Costs
1. Vehicle purchase or lease
2. Insurance
3. Registration and vehicle taxes
B. Variable Costs
1. Maintenance and repair
2. Fuel, fuel taxes and oil
3. Paid parking and tolls
 Some costs that are considered fixed are actually partly variable. Depreciation is partly
variable because increased mileage requires increased vehicle repairs and replacement,
and reduces vehicle resale value.

Unit III Vehicles and Their Specifications

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Dr. D. Y.

Prof. S.P. Nawale Subject : Systems in Mechanical Engineering (SPPU)

Prof. S.P. Nawale Subject : Systems in Mechanical Engineering (SPPU)

Fig. 3: Photograph of the original

Prof. S.P. Nawale Subject : Systems in Mechanical Engineering (SPPU)

Fig 4 : Different Types of Two Wheelers

Prof. S.P. Nawale Subject : Systems in Mechanical Engineering (SPPU)

Prof. S.P. Nawale Subject : Systems in Mechanical Engineering (SPPU)

Fig 5 : Autorickshaw Fig 6 : Battery Powered Three Wheeler

Prof. S.P. Nawale Subject : Systems in Mechanical Engineering (SPPU)

Prof. S.P. Nawale Subject : Systems in Mechanical Engineering (SPPU)

Fig 8 : Commercial Vehicles

Prof. S.P. Nawale Subject : Systems in Mechanical Engineering (SPPU)

Prof. S.P. Nawale Subject : Systems in Mechanical Engineering (SPPU)

 OPERATION SPECS often include optional features. Air conditioning, audio

Prof. S.P. Nawale Subject : Systems in Mechanical Engineering (SPPU)

Prof. S.P. Nawale Subject : Systems in Mechanical Engineering (SPPU)

Fig : Engine Components

Prof. S.P. Nawale Subject : Systems in Mechanical Engineering (SPPU)

Prof. S.P. Nawale Subject : Systems in Mechanical Engineering (SPPU)

Fig : Connecting Rod

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Prof. S.P. Nawale Subject : Systems in Mechanical Engineering (SPPU)

Prof. S.P. Nawale Subject : Systems in Mechanical Engineering (SPPU)

Prof. S.P. Nawale Subject : Systems in Mechanical Engineering (SPPU)

Fig : Engine Sectional view

Prof. S.P. Nawale Subject : Systems in Mechanical Engineering (SPPU)

Prof. S.P. Nawale Subject : Systems in Mechanical Engineering (SPPU)

Prof. S.P. Nawale Subject : Systems in Mechanical Engineering (SPPU)

Fig 4.1: Conceptual Illustration Of General EV Configuration

Prof. S.P. Nawale Subject : Systems in Mechanical Engineering (SPPU)

Prof. S.P. Nawale Subject : Systems in Mechanical Engineering (SPPU)

Prof. S.P. Nawale Subject : Systems in Mechanical Engineering (SPPU)

Prof. S.P. Nawale Subject : Systems in Mechanical Engineering (SPPU)

Prof. S.P. Nawale Subject : Systems in Mechanical Engineering (SPPU)

Fig 4.1: Lithium and Lead Acid Battery Module

Prof. S.P. Nawale Subject : Systems in Mechanical Engineering (SPPU)

Prof. S.P. Nawale Subject : Systems in Mechanical Engineering (SPPU)

Prof. S.P. Nawale Subject : Systems in Mechanical Engineering (SPPU)

Prof. S.P. Nawale Subject : Systems in Mechanical Engineering (SPPU)

Fig 5.1 : Conceptual Illustration of A Hybrid Electric Drive Train

Prof. S.P. Nawale Subject : Systems in Mechanical Engineering (SPPU)

Prof. S.P. Nawale Subject : Systems in Mechanical Engineering (SPPU)

Prof. S.P. Nawale Subject : Systems in Mechanical Engineering (SPPU)

Fig : Classification of Hybrid Electric Vehicles (HEV)

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