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Objectives
Describe the development of the
child's ability to represent
knowledge.

Explain how the spiral curriculum works.

 Proponents of
Constructivist
Born on October 1, 1915 in
New York City.
Born on October 1, 1915

American psychologist and

educator who developed
theories on perception,
learning, memory, and other
aspects of cognition in young Jerome Bruner
children.
Bruner’s Main
Concept
Representati
Bruner suggested the ability to represent
on knowledge in three stages.

Enactive
01 Representation

02 Iconic Representation

03 Symbolic Representation
Enactive
01 Representation

At the earliest ages, children learn about the world through

actions on physical objects and the outcomes of these actions.

Children represent objects in terms of their immediate

sensation of them.
They are represented in the muscles and involve motor
responses, or ways to manipulate the environment.
02 Iconic Representation

This second stage is when learning can be obtained

through using models and pictures. The learner can now
use mental images to stand for certain objects or events.
Iconic representation allows one to recognize objects when
they are changed in minor ways
03 Symbolic Representation

In this third stage, the learner has developed the

ability to think in abstract terms. This uses symbol
system to encode knowledge. The most common
symbol systems are language and mathematical
notation.
Spiral
 
Curriculum
Bruner stressed that teaching should always lead to
boosting cognitive development.

Teachers must revisit the curriculum by teaching the

same content in different ways depending on students
developmental levels.
 In the K to 12 curriculum, the spiral progression is a
mandate. Section 5 (g), Curriculum Development of RA.
10533, states;

The curriculum shall use the

spiral progression approach to
ensure mastery of knowledge and
skills after each level.
Below are the principles of instruction stated by Bruner:
1. Instruction must be concerned with the experiences and
contexts that make the student willing and able to learn
(readiness).
2. Instruction must be structured so that it can be easily
grasped by the student (spiral organization).
3. Instruction should be designed to facilitate
extrapolation and or fill in the gaps (going beyond the
information given).
3Discovery Learning
refers to obtaining knowledge for oneself.
The teacher plans and arranges activities in
such a way that students search, manipulate
explore and investigate.
 Classroom Example:
In Elementary school
Teachers might use guided discovery help children learn
animal groups (e.g. mammals, birds, reptiles). Rather than
provide students with the basic animals groups and examples for
each, the teacher could ask students to provide the names of
types of animals. Then the students and teacher could classify
the animals by examining their similarities and differences.
Category labels can be assigned once classifications are made.
This approach is guided by the teacher to ensure that
classifications are proper, but students are active contributors as
they discover the similarities and differences among animals.
 Classroom Example:
In High school
A chemistry teacher might use "mystery liquids and have
students discover the elements in each. The students could
proceed through a series of experiments designed to determine
if certain substances are present in a sample. By using the
process, students learn about the reactions of various substances
to certain chemicals and also how to determine the contents of
their mystery substance.

Retrieved from http://www.lifecircles-inc.com/Bruner.htm)

 
 Bruner (1966) states that a theory of instruction
should address four major aspects:

1. Predisposition to learn. He introduced the ideas of

"readiness for learning".
factors contribute to this;
Motivational
Cultural
Personal
Social
2. Structure of Knowledge. This refers to the ways in which
a body of knowledge can be structured so that it can be
most readily grasped by the learner.

Bruner emphasized the role of structure in learning and

how it may be made central in teaching.

Structure refers to relationships among factual elements

and techniques.
 Bruner offered considerable detail about structuring
knowledge.

1. Understanding the fundamental structure of a

subject makes it more comprehensible. Bruner
viewed categorization as a fundamental process in
the structuring of knowledge. Details are better
retained when placed within the context of an
ordered and structured pattern.
2. To generate knowledge which is transferable to other
contexts, fundamental principles or patterns are best suited.

3. The discrepancy between beginning and advanced

knowledge in a subject area is diminished when instruction
centers on a structure and principles of orientation. This
means that a body of knowledge must be in a form simple
enough for the learner to understand and it must be in a
form recognizable to the student' experience.
3. Effective sequencing. No one sequencing will fit every
learner, but in general, the lesson can be presented in
increasing difficulty. Sequencing, or lack of it, can make
learning easier or more difficult.

Spiral curriculum refers to the idea of revisiting basic

ideas over and over, building upon them and elaborating to
the level of full understanding and mastery
4. Reinforcement. Rewards and punishments should be
selected and paced appropriately. He investigated
motivation for learning. He felt that ideally, interest in the
subject matter is the best stimulus for learning. Bruner did
not like external competitive goals such as grades or class
ranking.
4Categorization
Bruner gave much attention to categorization of
information in the construction of internal cognitive
maps. He believed that perception, conceptualization,
learning, decision making and making inferences all
involved categorization.
Categories are "rules" that specify four thing
about objects.
 The four things are given below:
1. Criterial attributes required characteristics for inclusion of an
object in a category.
Example, for an object to be included in the category ”car" it must
have an engine, 4 wheels, and be a possible means of transportation.

2. The second rule prescribes how the criteral attributes are

combined.
3. The third rule assigns weight to various properties.
Example, it could be a car even if a tire was missing, and if
it was used for hauling cargo it would be shifted to a
different category of "truck" or perhaps "van'.

4. The fourth rule sets acceptance limits on attributes.

Some attributes can vary widely, such as color. Others are
fixed.
 There are several kinds of categories:

1. Identity categories-categories include objects based on their

attributes or features.
2. Equivalent categories (provide rules for combining categories).
Equivalence can be determined by affective criteria, which render
objects equivalent by emotional reactions, functional criteria,
based on related functions.
3. Coding systems are categories that serve to recognize sensory
input. They are major organizational variables in higher cognitive
functioning. Going beyond immediate sensory data involves
making inferences on the basis of related categories. Related
categories form a "coding system." These are hierarchical
arrangements of related categories. The principles of Bruner
launched the notion that people interpret the world mostly in
terms of similarities and differences. This is a valuable
contribution to how individuals construct their own models or
view of the world.
 
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