Photosynthesis 2.

9
Photosynthesis
 Photosynthesis is the production of carbon compounds in cells using light energy

• Photosynthesis is the process by which cells synthesise organic

compounds (e.g. glucose) from inorganic molecules (CO2 and
H2O) in the presence of sunlight
•
This process requires a photosynthetic pigment (chlorophyll) and
can only occur in certain organisms (plants, certain bacteria)
Photosynthesis Equation
• Photosynthetic organisms use the light energy from the
sun to create chemical energy (ATP)
• This chemical energy can either be used directly by the
organism or used to synthesise organic compounds (e.g.
glucose)
•
Animals then consume these organic compounds as food
and release the stored energy via cell respiration
• Photosynthesis (anabolic synthesis of organic compounds)
is essentially the reverse of cell respiration (catabolic
breakdown)
Relationship between Photosynthesis and Cell
Respiration
 Light Spectrum
Visible light has a range of wavelengths with violet the shortest wavelength and red the
longest

• The electromagnetic spectrum is the range of all possible frequencies of

electromagnetic radiation
• The Sun emits its peak power in the visible region of this spectrum (white
light ~ 400 – 700 nm)
• Colours are different wavelengths of white light and range from red (~700
nm) to violet (~400 nm)
• The colours of the visible spectrum are (from longest to shortest
wavelength):
• Red    Orange    Yellow    Green    Blue    Indigo    Violet  (Mnemonic:  Roy G.
Biv)
The Electromagnetic Spectrum
 Chlorophyll
Chlorophyll absorbs red and blue light most effectively and reflects green light more
than other colours
• Chlorophyll is a green pigment found in photosynthetic organisms
that is responsible for light absorption
• When chlorophyll absorbs light, it releases electrons which are
used to synthesise ATP (chemical energy)

• There are a number of different chlorophyll molecules, each with

their own absorption spectra, however collectively:
• Chlorophyll absorbs light most strongly in the blue portion of the
visible spectrum, followed by the red portion
• Chlorophyll reflects light most strongly in the green portion of the
visible spectrum (hence the green colour of leaves)
Diagram of a Typical Chlorophyll
Molecule
 Action Spectrum
Drawing an absorption spectrum for chlorophyll and an action
spectrum for photosynthesis
• Pigments absorb light as a source of energy for photosynthesis
• The absorption spectrum indicates the wavelengths of light absorbed by each
pigment (e.g. chlorophyll)
• The action spectrum indicates the overall rate of photosynthesis at each
wavelength of light
•
There is a strong correlation between the cumulative absorption spectra of all
pigments and the action spectrum
• Both display two main peaks – a larger peak at the blue region (~450 nm) and a
smaller peak at the red region (~670 nm) 
• Both display a trough in the green / yellow portion of the visible spectra (~550 nm)
Absorption and Action Spectra
 Photosynthetic Reactions
Oxygen is produced in photosynthesis from the photolysis of water. Energy is needed to
produce carbohydrates and other carbon compounds from carbon dioxide
• Photosynthesis is a two step process:
• The light dependent reactions convert light energy from the Sun into chemical energy
(ATP)
• The light independent reactions use the chemical energy to synthesise organic
compounds (e.g. carbohydrates)

• Step 1:  Light Dependent Reactions

• Light is absorbed by chlorophyll, which results in the production of ATP (chemical
energy)
• Light is also absorbed by water, which is split (photolysis) to produce oxygen and
hydrogen
• The hydrogen and ATP are used in the light independent reactions, the oxygen is
released from stomata as a waste product
• Step 2:  Light Independent Reactions
• ATP and hydrogen (carried by NADPH) are transferred to
the site of the light independent reactions
• The hydrogen is combined with carbon dioxide to form
complex organic compounds (e.g. carbohydrates, amino
acids, etc.)
• The ATP provides the required energy to power these
anabolic reactions and fix the carbon molecules together
Summary of the Overall Process of
Photosynthesis
Chromatographs
Separation of photosynthetic pigments by chromatograph

• Photosynthetic organisms do not rely on a single

pigment to absorb light, but instead benefit from the
combined action of many
• These pigments include chlorophylls, xanthophyll and
carotenes
• Chromatography is an experimental technique by which mixtures can be
separated
• A mixture is dissolved in a fluid (called the mobile phase) and passed
through a static material (called the stationary phase)
• The different components of the mixture travel at different speeds, causing
them to separate
• A retardation factor can then be calculated (Rf value = distance component
travels ÷ distance solvent travels)
•
Two of the most common techniques for separating photosynthetic
pigments are:
• Paper chromatography – uses paper (cellulose) as the stationary bed
• Thin layer chromatography – uses a thin layer of adsorbent (e.g. silica gel)
which runs faster and has better separation
Overview of the Chomatographic Separation of
Photosynthetic Pigments
 Limiting Factors
Temperature, light intensity and CO2 concentration are possible limiting factors
on the rate of photosynthesis

• The law of limiting factors states that when a chemical process depends
on more than one essential condition being favourable, the rate of
reaction will be limited by the factor that is nearest its minimum value
•
Photosynthesis is dependent on a number of favourable conditions,
including:
• Temperature
• Light intensity
• Carbon dioxide concentration
 Temperature
• Photosynthesis is controlled by enzymes, which are
sensitive to temperature fluctuations
As temperature increases reaction rate will increase, as
reactants have greater kinetic energy and more collisions
result
Above a certain temperature the rate of photosynthesis
will decrease as essential enzymes begin to denature
The Effect of Temperature on Photosynthetic
Rate
• Light Intensity
• Light is absorbed by chlorophyll, which convert the radiant
energy into chemical energy (ATP)
• As light intensity increases reaction rate will increase, as
more chlorophyll are being photo-activated
• At a certain light intensity photosynthetic rate will plateau,
as all available chlorophyll are saturated with light
• Different wavelengths of light will have different effects on
the rate of photosynthesis (e.g. green light is reflected)
The Effect of Light Intensity on Photosynthetic
Rate
• Carbon Dioxide Concentration
• Carbon dioxide is involved in the fixation of carbon
atoms to form organic molecules
• As carbon dioxide concentration increases reaction
rate will increase, as more organic molecules are
being produced
• At a certain concentration of CO2 photosynthetic rate
will plateau, as the enzymes responsible for carbon
fixation are saturated
Effect of Carbon Dioxide Concentration on
Photosynthetic Rate
  Design of experiments to investigate the effects of limiting
factors on photosynthesis
• Photosynthesis can be measured directly via the uptake of CO2 or production of O2, or
indirectly via a change in biomass
• It is important to recognise that these levels may be influenced by the relative amount of cell
respiration occurring in the tissue

• Measuring CO2 Uptake
• Carbon dioxide uptake can be measured by placing leaf tissue in an enclosed space with
water
• Water free of dissolved carbon dioxide can initially be produced by boiling and cooling water
• Carbon dioxide interacts with the water molecules, producing bicarbonate and hydrogen
ions, which changes the pH (↑ acidity)
• Increased uptake of CO2 by the plant will lower the concentration in solution and increase
the alkalinity (measure with probe)
• Alternatively, carbon dioxide levels may be monitored via a data logger
• Measuring O2 Production
• Oxygen production can be measured by submerging a plant in an enclosed water-
filled space attached to a sealed gas syringe
• Any oxygen gas produced will bubble out of solution and can be measured by a
change in meniscus level on the syringe
• Alternatively, oxygen production could be measured by the time taken for
submerged leaf discs to surface
• Oxygen levels can also be measured with a data logger if the appropriate probe is
available
• Measuring Biomass (Indirect)
• Glucose production can be indirectly measured by a change in the
plant’s biomass (weight)
• This requires the plant tissue to be completely dehydrated prior to
weighing to ensure the change in biomass represents organic matter
and not water content
• An alternative method for measuring glucose production is to
determine the change in starch levels (glucose is stored as starch)
• Starch can be identified via iodine staining (turns starch solution
purple) and quantitated using a colorimeter 
Oxygenation of Earth
Changes to the Earth’s atmosphere, oceans and rock deposition due to photosynthesis
    

• Only one significant source of oxygen gas exists in the known universe
– biological photosynthesis
• Before the evolution of photosynthetic organisms, any free oxygen
produced was chemically captured and stored
•
Approximately 2.3 billion years ago, photosynthetic organisms began
to saturate the environment with oxygen
• This led to changes in the Earth’s atmosphere, oceans, rock deposition
and biological life
• Oceans
• Earth’s oceans initially had high levels of dissolved iron (released from the
crust by underwater volcanic vents)
• When iron reacts with oxygen gas it undergoes a chemical reaction to form
an insoluble precipitate (iron oxide)
• When the iron in the ocean was completely consumed, oxygen gas started
accumulating in the atmosphere

• Atmosphere
• For the first 2 billion years after the Earth was formed, its atmosphere was
anoxic (oxygen-free)
• The current concentration of oxygen gas within the atmosphere
is approximately 20%
• Rock Deposition
• The reaction between dissolved iron and oxygen gas created oceanic deposits
called banded iron formations (BIFs)
• These deposits are not commonly found in oceanic sedimentary rock younger than 1.8
billion years old
• This likely reflects the time when oxygen levels caused the near complete consumption of dissolved
iron levels
• As BIF deposition slowed in oceans, iron rich layers started to form on land due to the
rise in atmospheric O2 levels

• Biological Life
• Free oxygen is toxic to obligate anaerobes and an increase in O2 levels may have wiped
out many of these species
• Conversely, rising O2 levels was a critical determinant to the evolution of aerobically
respiring organisms
Changes to Oxygen Levels on Earth
 Chloroplasts
• Plants have evolved a specialised organelle responsible for
photosynthesis – the chloroplast

The chloroplast contains membrane sacs (called thylakoids)

arranged into stacks (called grana)
• These membrane sacs contain chlorophyll and are the site of
the light dependent reactions
•
The surrounding fluid matrix is called the stroma and contains
carbon fixating enzymes
• This is the site of the light independent reactions
The Chloroplast
 Accessory Pigments
• Photosynthetic organisms do not rely on a single pigment to absorb light, but instead benefit from
the combined action of many
• These photosynthetic pigments are grouped into photosystems that absorb and funnel light
energy
• By grouping pigments that have individualised absorption spectra together, the cell maximises its
light absorption
•
When a pigment is energised by light, it releases high energy electrons (ionisation)
• Antenna pigments transfer their energised electrons to a central reaction centre
• From the reaction centre, electrons are passed on to an acceptor molecule in an electron
transport chain to synthesise ATP
•
The presence of accessory pigments explains why not all leaves are green
• While chlorophyll possesses a green colouration, other pigments (e.g. anthocyanins) may produce
different colours
• Deciduous trees change colour when leaves stop producing chlorophyll in winter when levels of
available light are low
Representations of the Transfer of Energy by Antenna Pigments