REHABILITATION &

RETROFITTING OF STRUCTURES

UNIT – 1

SIRAM VENKAT RAMANA

Tests on Cement
Fineness 
• Surface area is measured.
• Finer the cement higher is rate of strength development.
•Sieve Test is performed.
Consistency (P)
• To determine water quantity to produce standard consistency.
•Vicat’s apparatus is used (Water required for 300gm cement to
penetrate to a depth of 33-35 mm from the top of the mould).
Initial and final setting time 
•First find Consistency (P) and use 0.85P and perform test
using Vicat’s apparatus.
Soundness
•Soundness means the ability to resist volume expansion.
•In the soundness test a specimen of hardened cement paste is
boiled for a fixed time so that any tendency to expand is
speeded up and can be detected
•Le-Chatlier test and Autoclave test are tests performed.
Tests on Hardened Concrete
Non-destructive tests 
•Rebound hammer test
Provides a convenient and rapid indication of the compressive strength of concrete by
means of establishing a suitable correlation between the rebound index and the compressive
strength of concrete.
•Ultrasonic pulse velocity
An ultrasonic pulse velocity (UPV) test is an in-situ, nondestructive test to check the
quality of concrete and natural rocks. In this test, the strength and quality of concrete or rock
is assessed by measuring the velocity of an ultrasonic pulse passing through a concrete
structure or natural rock formation.
Tests on Hardened Concrete
Destructive Tests
•Split Cylinder test
In this test, a concrete cylinder is placed horizontally between loading surfaces and
loaded along its diameter. This loading results in producing lateral tensile stress in the
cylinder and its splits in tension along its diameter.

•Compression test
Compressive strength of the cubes shall be calculated by dividing the maximum load
applied to the cubes during the test by the cross-sectional area

•Flexural tension test

Flexural test evaluates the tensile strength of concrete indirectly. It tests the ability of
unreinforced concrete beam or slab to withstand failure in bending. The results of flexural test
on concrete expressed as a modulus of rupture which denotes as (MR) in Mpa.
Tests on Fresh Concrete
Workability
•Describes how easily freshly mixed concrete can be mixed, placed, consolidated, and
finished with minimal loss of homogeneity.
•Slump, Compacting factor, Vee-Bee 
 DURABILITY OF CONCRETE
Durability of Concrete may be defined as the ability of concrete to resist weathering action,
chemical attack and abrasion by maintaining its desired engineering properties.

One of the main characteristics influencing the durability of concrete is its permeability to the
ingress of water, oxygen, carbon dioxide, chloride, sulphate and other potentially deleterious
substances

 Durability is the ability to last long time without significant deterioration.

 Permeability is one of the most important properties of concrete for durability.

 Attacking agents penetrate through the concrete mass and damage the internal
structure and the reinforcement of a structure.
 Most of the durability problems in concrete is attributed with the volume change in
concrete.
 Hydration process; effects of chloride, sulphate attack; corrosion of steel; carbonation etc.
 Internal and external restraints to volume change in concrete results into cracking
 Cracking promotes the permeability in concrete.
 Concrete deteriorates, degrades, disrupts and eventually fails.
Factors affecting Durability of Concrete
Factors affecting Durability of Concrete
 DURABILITY OF CONCRETE
Permeability of Concrete
 Permeability of concrete to air or other gases – important for
structures like sewage tanks, gas purifiers, pressure vessels etc.
 No relationship between air permeability and water permeability of
concrete
 Permeability is very important particularly for water
retaining structures like water tanks, dams, containers etc.
 Concrete permeability is dependent on the permeability of each
constituent and its geometric arrangements
 Factors affecting Permeability of Concrete
 Water-cement ratio
 Degree of hydration of cement
 Properties of cement
 Properties of aggregate
 Gradation of aggregates
 Curing of concrete
 Use of admixtures
 Air entrainment (upto 6%)
 Age of concrete
IMPACT OF W/C RATIO ON PERMEABILITY

Permeability Increases with

increase in w/c ratio Permeability decreases with age
 Factors affecting Permeability of Concrete
 Properties of cement – higher the strength of cement, lower will be the
permeability.
 Greater the maximum size of aggregates, greater is the permeability
because of larger size of voids.
 Well graded aggregate concrete – lower is the permeability
 Porous aggregate increases permeability of concrete
 Proper curing of concrete decreases the permeability. Permeability of
steam cured concrete is higher than that of water cured concrete because
of large sized gel formation
 Water proofing admixture in concrete reduces permeability.
 Absorption and Homogeneity of Concrete Absorption depends upon size
of capillary pores.
 Factors affecting Permeability of Concrete

 Permeability of cement paste is primarily related to pore

structure, which includes porosity, pore structure and pore
connectivity.
 Two porous body having similar porosity may have
different permeability.
 Interconnected Capillary pores result into higher permeability as
compared to segmented and partly connected capillary pores
 Pore structure is a function of w/c ratio and degree of hydration
DURABILITY OF CONCRETE
FACTORS AFFECTING DURABILITY
MATERIALS IMPACT ON DURABILITY
WORKMANSHIP EFFECT ON DURABILITY

Curing is the process of controlling moisture loss from concrete that

has already been placed.
Curing ensures hydration of the cement, which in turn enhances
strength and durability of concrete.
The Chemical reaction that takes place between cement and
water is called as hydration of cement.
WORKMANSHIP EFFECT ON DURABILITY
CHEMICAL ATTACK ON DURABILITY OF CONCRETE
CHEMICAL ATTACK ON DURABILITY OF
CONCRETE
 SULPHATE ATTACK ON CONCRETE
Most soils contain some sulphate in the form of gypsum, typically 0.01%-0.05%
expressed as SO4.
Higher concentrations of sulphate in groundwater are generally due to the
presence of magnesium and alkali sulphates.

 Hardened Concrete, when becomes permeable, may be attacked

by Sulphates from external sources.
 Chemical reaction resulting into increase in volume &
disintegration of concrete.
 Sulphate attack of concrete is a complex process, which includes
physical salt attack due to salt crystallization and chemical sulfate
attack by sulfates from soil, groundwater, or seawater.
 Sulphate attack can lead to expansion, cracking, strength loss, and
disintegration of the concrete.
 Whitish appearance, damage starts at the edges and corners,
followed by Cracking and Spalling of concrete.
SULPHATE ATTACK ON CONCRETE
SULPHATE ATTACK ON CONCRETE
 ALKALI-AGGREGATE REACTION
Alkali–aggregate reaction is a term mainly referring to a reaction which occurs over time
in concrete between the highly alkaline cement paste and non-crystalline silicon dioxide,
which is found in many common aggregates.
This reaction can cause the expansion of the altered aggregate, leading to spalling and loss
of strength of concrete.
The alkali–silica reaction is the most common form of alkali–aggregate reaction.
The alkali–silica reaction (ASR), more commonly known as "concrete cancer“
It is a deleterious swelling reaction that occurs over time in concrete between the highly
alkaline cement paste and the reactive amorphous silica found in many common aggregates,
given sufficient moisture.
This deleterious chemical reaction causes the expansion of the altered aggregate by the
formation of a soluble and viscous gel of sodium silicate.
 ALKALI-SILICA REACTION
The cracking caused by ASR can have several negative impacts on concrete
1. Expansion: The swelling nature of ASR gel increases the chance of expansion in
concrete elements.
2. Compressive strength: The effect of ASR on compressive strength can be minor for low
expansion levels, to relatively higher degrees at larger expansion. So, compressive
strength is not very accurate parameter to study the severity of ASR; however, the test
is done because of its simplicity.
3. Tensile strength / Flexural capacity: Researches show that ASR cracking can
significantly reduce the tensile strength of concrete; therefore reducing the flexural
capacity of beams. Some research on bridge structures indicate about 85% loss of
capacity as a result of ASR.
4. Modulus of elasticity/UPV: The effect of ASR on elastic properties of concrete
and ultrasound pulse velocity (UPV) is very similar to tensile capacity. The modulus of
elasticity is shown to be more sensitive to ASR than pulse velocity.
5. Fatigue: ASR reduces the load bearing capacity and the fatigue life of concrete.
6. Shear strength: ASR enhances the shear capacity of reinforced concrete with and
without shear reinforcement.
 ALKALI-SILICA REACTION
Recommended measures for prevention of alkali-aggregate reactions are:
1. limiting the total alkali content of the concrete.
2. The use of supplementary cementing materials (SCMs) such as fly ash or slag.
Minimum replacement levels are given for fly ash and slag.
 ACID ATTACK ON CONCRETE
 Acid attack is the dissolution and leaching of acid-susceptible constituents, mainly
calcium hydroxide, from the cement paste of hardened concrete. This action results in
an increase in capillary porosity, loss of cohesiveness and eventually loss of strength.

 No Portland cement is resistant to acid attacks.

 In damp conditions, SO2 and CO2 , as well as some other gases present in atmosphere,
form acids, which attack concrete.
 Due to this attack, some parts of the hydrated cement paste are disintegrated and leave
a soft and weak mass.
 Found in areas of industrial activities, food processing
plants, floors of dairies (due to lactic and acetic acids) etc.
 Water with pH < 6.5 susceptible to acid attack and pH < 4.4 lead to severe acid attack.
 Concrete is also attacked by water containing free CO2 ,
in concentrations of at least 15 – 60 ppm.
 Domestic sewage (alkaline in nature) causes deterioration
of concrete sewer pipes, when sulphur compounds in the sewage are reduced by
anaerobic bacteria to H2S, which after oxidation produces H2SO4.
ACID ATTACK ON CONCRETE
ACID TEST ON CONCRETE - DURABILITY
For acid attack test, concrete cube of size 150x150x150
mm are prepared for various percentages of silica fume
addition.
The specimen are cast and cured in mould for 24 hours,
after 24 hours, all the specimen are demoulded and kept in
curing tank for 7-days.
 After 7-days all specimens are kept in atmosphere for
2-days for constant weight, subsequently, the specimens
are weighed and immersed in 5% sulphuric acid (H2SO4)
solution for 60-days.
The pH value of the acidic media was at 0.3. The pH
value was periodically checked and maintained at 0.3.
After 60-days of immersing in acid solution, the
specimens are taken out and were washed in running
water and kept in atmosphere for 2-day for constant
weight.
Subsequently the specimens are weighed and loss in
weight and hence the percentage loss of weight was
calculated.
CHLORIDES IN CONCRETE
Due to high alkalinity in
concrete a protective layer is
created which will protect
reinforcement.
This protective layer is lost due
to carbonation as also due to
presence of chloride in the
presence of water and oxygen.
While sulphates attack concrete
chlorides attack reinforcement.
CHLORIDES IN CONCRETE
 CHLORIDES IN CONCRETE – PREVENTIVE MEASURES
To improve durability of concrete structure which are exposed to marine conditions

1) Cement with low C3A content should be preferable to make concrete.

2) Prepare rich concrete with low water cement ratio which makes the concrete impervious.
Then the pores in concrete are very small and they cannot hold seawater results in the
prevention of expansion by freezing of water and crystallization of salt in the pores.
3) The concrete is of low water cement ratio. To make it workable for construction, Water
reducing admixtures can be added to the concrete which is recommended by ACI 318
and ACI 357.
4) The admixtures should not contain chloride in any form otherwise corrosion of
reinforcement takes place.
5) Adequate cover should be provided for reinforcement in concrete structure to enhance
durability.
6) Good compaction and well-made construction joints in the structure helps the concrete
structure to withstand against expansion caused by seawater.
7) Use of pozzolanic material in the preparation of concrete is good against salt water.
8) For better durability, High pressure steam cured concrete elements can be used for
construction of structure in marine conditions.
9) Aggregates used for making concrete should be thoroughly washed with fresh
water to reduce the chloride ion concentration in it.
 CARBONATION OF CONCRETE
Carbonation is a process by which carbon dioxide from air penetrates into concrete and
reacts with calcium hydroxide to form carbonates.
This will result in small shrinkage of concrete. In the presence of moisture, CO2 changes
into carbonic acid which attacks concrete and also reduces alkalinity of concrete.
The pH value of pore water in concrete is generally between 12.5 to 13.5.
The pH value will get reduced to around 9 when Ca(OH)2 has become carbonated and
results in corrosion of reinforcement.
The reaction of carbon dioxide and calcium hydroxide only occurs in solution and so in
very dry concrete carbonation will be slow.
In saturated concrete the moisture presents a barrier to the penetration of carbon dioxide
and again carbonation will be slow.
The most favorable condition for the carbonation reaction is when there is sufficient
moisture for the reaction but not enough to act as a barrier.
In most structures made with good quality concrete, carbonation will take several (or
many) years to reach the level of the reinforcement.
CARBONATION OF CONCRETE
 FREEZE & THAW EFFECTS ON CONCRETE
The freeze-thaw process is based on one unique characteristic of water — it expands by
nine percent when it freezes.
The cycle occurs readily in nature and is common where temperatures reach below
freezing at night and rise in the daytime.
However, freeze-thaw generally doesn’t happen in environments that don’t freeze at all,
like the tropics, or stay frozen most of the time, like the arctic.
In a more moderate climate, water seeps into cracks and openings in rock during the day
and freezes overnight. As the water freezes, it expands, stressing and opening the rock
further and creating a wider gap.
Generally, the most destructive kind of freeze-thaw action occurs in highly saturated
conditions where more water is present.
Once the crack has expanded, and the ice has melted, more water can fill up the gap in the
rock. Since the crack is bigger, it can hold more water this time around.
Once the temperature drops again, the new water freezes and the crack gets nine percent
larger than before. Each time this cycle occurs, the crack gets bigger and bigger.
This process, also known as frost wedging, eventually causes the concrete to break off into
smaller pieces and separate from its parent rock.
FREEZE & THAW EFFECTS ON CONCRETE
 FREEZE & THAW EFFECTS ON CONCRETE
Certain measures can be taken to prevent freeze/thaw damage to pavements and any
concrete structure. 
Prevention measures include adding deicing chemicals to the concrete during the winter in
order to decrease the freezing point of precipitation as it falls onto the pavement as well as
using high strength, air-entrained concrete. 
By reducing the freezing point of the precipitation, chemicals such as sodium chloride,
calcium chloride, magnesium chloride, and potassium chloride in high concentrations work
to reduce the exposure of the pavement to freeze/thaw cycles.
 ABRASION EFFECTS ON CONCRETE
Abrasion is contributing in lowering the service age of concrete.
Many structures such as dams, canals, industrial floors and roads are required to have
sufficient abrasion resistance.
Abrasion resistance is a property of harden concrete surface to be worn away by abrasive
forces
The main factor that controls abrasion resistance of concrete is the concrete's compressive
strength.
The higher the concrete surface strength the better the resistance of concrete against
abrasion.
 ABRASION EFFECTS ON CONCRETE
1) Low to moderate w/c ratio ensure the decrease of free water in concrete. This improves
concrete compactness and reduces permeability which consequently improves concrete
strength and hence abrasion resistance.
2) The use of well-graded fine and coarse aggregate can optimize workability and
minimize water content. This would improve concrete strength considerably.
 EROSION & EFFLORESCEENCE EFFECTS ON CONCRETE
Efflorescence is a chalky white salt residue that can occur with any product containing
cement.
As moisture migrates up to the surface of the concrete, it carries along with it calcium
salts from within the concrete.
When the salts reach the surface, they react with CO2 in the air and form insoluble
calcium carbonate.
A higher quantity of efflorescence on the surface of the concrete might impair the
appearance, increase permeability thereby reducing its durability.
 Generally, the presence of efflorescence on a concrete surface is a sign of moisture
penetration/leakage from the concrete.

1) Stiff brush: On some smooth

surfaces, you may be able to use a
stiff brush.
2) Water rinse: On other surfaces,
rinsing with a garden sprayer or
pressure washer can dissolve
efflorescence, allowing it to run off.
3) Chemical cleaning
 EROSION & EFFLORESCEENCE EFFECTS ON CONCRETE
The concrete structures built in marine conditions are always exposed to seawater either
directly or indirectly.
The coastal and offshore structures are always in contact with seawater and there are
number of physical and chemical deterioration processes takes place. So, Concrete
structures effected by seawater requires special attention.
Erosion of Concrete is one of such effects.
Hydraulic concrete structures frequently experience long-term abrasive erosion by water-
borne sand, resulting in surface damage and eventually limiting their service life.