Acoustics & sound

insulation
2nd year B.Sc.

- Ar. Nisha Hegde

 Introduction

• ‘Acoustics’ is the science of sound, which deals with origin, propagation and auditory sensation of sound, and also with
design and construction of different building units to set optimum conditions for producing and listening speech, music, etc.
The knowledge of this science is necessary for the proper functional design of theatres, cinema halls, auditoriums, conference
balls, hospitals, etc. so that unwanted sound is excluded or insulated.
• Sound is generated in the air when a surface is vibrated. The vibrating surface sets up waves of compression and rarefaction
in the air and these set the ear drum vibrating. The movements of the eardrum are translated by the brain into sound
sensation. When the sound waves are periodic, regular and long continued, they produce a pleasing effect; such a sound is
known as musical sound. On the contrary, when the sound wave is non-periodic, irregular and of very short duration, it
produces displeasing effect; such sound is known as noise. A noise is an abrupt sound of complex character with an irregular
period and amplitude originating from a source of non-periodic motion.
 Characteristics of audible sound
1) Intensity & loudness of sound
Intensity of sound is defined as the amount or flow of wave energy crossing per unit
time through a unit area taken perpendicular to the direction of propagation. Loudness of a sound corresponds to the degree of sensation
depending on the intensity of sound and the sensitivity of ear drums, and does not increase proportionally with intensity but more nearly to its
logarithm. It may also happen that the same listener might give different judgements about the loudness of sounds of the same intensity but of
different frequencies as the response of the ear is found to vary with the frequency of vibration.

2) Frequency & pitch of sound

Frequency or Pitch is defined as the number of cycles which a sounding body makes in each unit of time. It is a measure of the quality of a sound.
It is that characteristic by which a shrill sound can be distinguished from a grave one, even though the two sounds may be of the same intensity.
The sensation of pitch depends upon the frequency with which the vibrations succeed one another at the ear, the greater the frequency the higher
the pitch and the lesser the frequency the lower the pitch.

3) Quality or timbre
The quality of a sound is that characteristic which enables us to distinguish between two notes of the same pitch and loudness played on two
different instruments or produced by two different voices. It is to be
noted that it is the memory of this tonal quality which enables us to recognize a large number of different sounds. Among these are the voices of
friends and acquaintances, the various sounds employed in speech and familiar musical instruments and the cries of animals.
 Behavior of sound in enclosures

When sound is generated in a room, the distance between the source and the wall is so small that there is little or no reduction
due to distance. When the sound waves strike the surfaces of a room, three things happen:

i. Some of the sound is reflected back in the room.

ii. Some of the sound energy is absorbed by the surfaces and listeners.
iii. Some of the sound waves set on the walls, floors and ceiling vibrating and are thus transmitted outside the room.

The amount of sound reflected or absorbed depends upon the surfaces, while the
sound transmitted outside the room depends upon sound insulation properties of the surfaces.
 Reflection of sound
Sound waves get reflected from a large uniform plane surface in the same manner as that of light waves, the angle of incidence
being equal to angle of reflection.
The following characteristics of reflection of sound waves are noteworthy:
1. Reflection of sound waves follow practically the same laws as reflection of light. However, this may not
be true in some exceptional cases, hence
great caution should be exercised while applying these laws.
2. The reflected wave fronts from a flat surface are also spherical and their centre of curvature is the image
of source of sound Fig. 28.2 (a).
3. Sound waves reflected at a convex surface are magnified and are considerably bigger Fig. Convex
surfaces may be used with advantage to spread the sound waves throughout the room.
 Defects due to reflected sound
The behaviour of reflected sound plays very important role in the acoustical design of
an enclosed space. The following are two main defects that may be caused due to reflection
of sound waves:

(a) Echoes
(b) Reverberation

Echoes - An echo is produced when the reflected sound wave

reaches the ear just when the original sound from the same source
has been already heard. Thus, there is repetition of the sound.

Reveberation - It has been generally noticed that in public halls and auditoriums, the sound persists even after the source of
sound has ceased. This persistence of sound is
called reverberation. It is due to multiple reflections in an enclosed spare.
Reverberation is a familiar phenomenon in Cathedrals and new
halls/rooms without furniture, where, even after sound source stops the
reverberation is heard even upto 10 seconds. A certain amount of reverberation is desirable,
specially for giving richness to music, but too much reverberation is undesirable.
Absorption
When a sound wave strikes a surface, a part of its energy is absorbed by friction. The sound generated in an auditorium or hall is
absorbed in four ways:
a. In the air
b. By the audience
c. In the furniture and furnishings
d. At the boundary surfaces such as floors, ceilings, walls etc.

Absorption in Air
The absorption of sound in the air is mainly due to the friction between the oscillating molecules when sound wave travels through it.
However, this absorption is extremely small.
Absorption by the audience
Sound energy absorbed by the clothing of the audience. Room acoustics change perceptibly by the number of audience present. Also,
absorption is more in winter, than in summer, because of heavy clothing.
Absorption in furniture and furnishings
Furniture, curtains, carpets, etc. also absorb sound energy to a fair extent.
Absorption by boundary surface
When sound waves strike the boundary surfaces such as walls, floors, ceilings (treated or otherwise), absorption takes place due to the
following factors: (a) Penetration of sound into porous materials, causing resonance within air pockets in the pores until energy is
dissipated; (b) Resonant vibration of panel materials; (c) Molecular damping in soft absorbing materials; and (d) Transmission through
structures.
Absorbents
Special materials used on boundary surfaces to increase absorption are known as absorbents. Ceiling is generally more
exposed to direct sound waves than are other surfaces, and is usually the largest single area available for treatment.
Absorbents can be broadly classified as following:

a. Porous materials
Absorption in porous materials is mainly due to the frictional losses which occur when the sound waves cause to and from
movement of the air contained in the material. However, these materials absorb sound mainly in the higher frequencies.
Examples of absorbents under this category are rock wool, glass silk, wood wool, curtains and other soft furnishings, drilled
fiber boards and acoustic plasters.
c. Cavity resonators
A cavity resonator is virtually a container with a small opening, and it functions by
the resonance of air in it. They can be designed to absorb sound of any frequency.

d. Composite absorbers
These are a comparatively recent development, combining the functions of all the
above three absorbents. It consists of a perforated panel fixed over an air space
containing
porous absorbent. The perforations in the panel should form at least 10 percent of the
total
area to allow the porous materials to absorb sound at higher frequencies.

b. Resonant panels
These panels absorb the sound by damping the sympathetic vibrations in the panels, caused
by sound pressure waves bf appropriate: frequency, by means of air space behind the panel.
These panels absorb sound only at lower frequencies, over a comparatively narrow
frequency band ranging from 50 to 200 cycles. The frequencies at which panels vibrate
depend upon their weight and depth of air spaces behind them.
Common acoustical defects
Perfect acoustical conditions in a big room, hall or auditorium etc. are achieved when there is clarity of sound in every part
of the occupied space. For this, the sound should rise to suitable intensity everywhere with no echoes or near echoes or
distortion of the original sound; with correct reverberation time. Following are the common defects which are encountered
and which require special attention of the designer for proper treatment:

1. Reverberation
We have already seen that reverberation is the persistence of sound in the enclosed space, after the source of sound has
stopped. Reverberant sound is the reflected sound, as a result of improper absorption. Excessive reverberation is one of the
most common defects, with the result that sound once created prolongs for a longer duration resulting in confusion with the
sound created next. However, some reverberation is essential for improving quality of sound. Thus, optimum clarity depends
upon correct reverberation time which can be controlled by suitably installing the absorbent materials.
2. Formation of echoes
Echoes are also formed due to reflection of sound when the reflecting surfaces are situated at a distance greater than about
17 m and when the shape of the hall/auditorium/room is curved with smooth character. This defect can be removed by
selecting proper shape of the hall and by providing rough and porous interior surfaces to disperse energy of echoes.

3. Sound foci
Reflecting concave surfaces cause concentration of reflected sound waves at certain spots, creating a sound of large
intensity. These spots are called sound foci. Geometrical designed shapes of the interior faces, including ceilings, and
providing highly absorbent materials on focusing areas, can remove this defect.
4. Dead spots
This defect is an outcome of the formation of sound foci. Because of high concentration of reflected sound at sound foci, there
is deficiency of reflected sound at some other points. These points are known as dead spots where sound intensity is so low that
it is insufficient for hearing. This defect can be removed by installation of suitable diffuser so that there is even distribution of
sound in the hall.

5. Insufficient loudness.
This defect is caused due to lack of sound reflecting flat surface near the sound source and excessive sound absorption
treatment in the hall. The defect can be removed by providing hard reflecting surface near the source, and by adjusting the
absorption of the hall so as to get optimum time of reverberation. When the length of the hall is more, it may be desirable to
install loud speakers at proper places.

6. External noise.
External noise from vehicles, traffic engines, factories, cooling plants etc. may enter the hall either through the openings (such
as doors, windows, ventilators etc.) or through even walls and other structural elements having improper sound insulation. This
defect can be removed by proper planning of the hall with respect to its surroundings and by proper sound insulation of
exterior walls.