1

Chapter One
1. Concepts of Biodiversity
 Define the following important terms?

- Biodiversity - Conservations -
Organisms

- Community - preservations -
Population

- Ecosystem - species -
2
Biodiversity:-The range of variation found
among microorganisms, plants,
fungi, and animals. Also the
richness of species of living
organisms.
Community:- Populations of organisms of
different species that interact with
one another.
Ecosystem:- Any geographic area with all of
the living organisms present and the
nonliving parts of their physical
environment. 3
Gene: A unit of inherited material.

- An organism’s collection of genes determines

what it is, what it looks like, and often how it
behaves.

Organism: An individual living thing.

Population: A group of individuals belonging to one

species living in an area.

Species: A group of populations of similar organisms

that reproduce among themselves, but do not
4
1.1 Definitions of Biodiversity, Preservation and
Conservation

What is - Preservation?

- Conservation?

- biodiversity?

5
Conservation:
 is the sustainable use of resources and
encompasses protection as well as exploitation.
 is wise use and management of resources for
human benefit, but in a way that minimizes
disturbances to ecosystems.

e.g. Streams in Montana designated for

recreational trout fishing serve the needs of biota
and the wishes of the people 6
Preservation:
 is an aspect of conservation meaning to keep
something without altering or changing it.
 It is the act of setting resources aside,
unspoiled and undisturbed.
 Designated wilderness area,

Example, preserve space for wild life.

7
Biodiversity:
 refers to the variety of all forms of life on earth,
including the different plants, animals, micro-
organisms, the genes they contain and the ecosystem
they form.
 The total variability of life on earth; essentially a
synonym of life on earth.
 Variability among living organisms from all sorts of
ecosystems and the systems of which they are part.
8
 The variety of life in all its forms and at all levels of
organization.
– “In all its forms”: implies that biodiversity includes
plants, invertebrate, animals, fungi, bacteria, and other
microorganisms, as well as the vertebrates that capture
most of the attention.
– “All levels of organization” include biomes
(bioregional), landscape, ecosystem, species, population,
individual and genes.
9
 Components of biodiversity

 Three main components and one additional

aspect include:
 Genetic diversity
 Species diversity
 ecosystem diversity and
 cultural diversity
10
 1.2 Levels of biodiversity

 Biological diversity is usually consider at three

different levels

 Genetic diversity

 Species diversity

 Ecosystem diversity
 1.2.1 Genetic diversity
 is all the different genes contained in all individual
plants, animals, fungi, and microorganisms.
 it is the variation of genes within species and
populations.
 It occurs within a species as well as between
species
 it can be measured using various DNA based and
other techniques.
 Genetic Diversity can be measures through
parameters such as .
 Gene Diversity – the no (and percentage )of
genes in the populations that are polymorphic.
 heterozygote – the no of alleles for each
polymorphic genes.
 The no and percentage of alleles per
individuals
 1.2.2 Species diversity

 is all the differences within and between

populations of species, as well as between
different species.
 It can be measured by in terms of

 Species richness

 Species abundance

 Species heterogeneity
 1.2.3 Ecosystem diversity

 is all the different habitats, biological

communities and ecological processes, as well as
variation within individual ecosystems.
 Can be measured in terms of its

 Species richness

 Species turn over

 1.3. Importance of Biodiversity
 Generally biodiversity supports many lives and
livelihoods.
 Biodiversity is:

 A source of harvestable goods including food,

medicines and building materials.
 Essential for regulation of natural processes and
the earth’s life support systems,

e.g., Carbon sequestration, soil formation, and

purification of water. 16
 Essential for pollination of commercially
valuable crops and biological control of pests
and diseases.
 A source of spiritual and religious enrichment
and well-being.
 Perhaps most important of all, biodiversity is the
basis for evolution and adaptation to changing
environments, essential for survival of life.
17
 Biodiversity values are often underestimated. They
include:
1. Economic values:
 biodiversity goods and products are sold for
income or used as inputs to other economic
activities.
 Economical benefit include food, medicine and
industrial materials.
2. Social values, such as
 Research, education and monitoring
 Recreation and tourism
 Cultural values
18
3. Ecosystem services, such as
 Protection of water resources

 Soils formation and protection

 Nutrient storage and recycling

 Pollution breakdown and absorption

 Contribution to climate stability

 Maintenance of ecosystems
19
 1.4. Distribution Patterns of Biodiversity

 One way of assigning priorities would be to select

the regions with the greatest number of species.
 For most well-studied groups of organisms, species
richness increases from the poles to the equator.
 Milder climate and greater supply of solar energy
allows more biomass to be produced.

20
 Biogeography

 It is study of the geographic distribution of

organisms.

 One of its principles is that the earth can be divided

into six biogeographic realms - the Nearctic,
Palearctic, Ethiopian, Australian, Oriental, and
Neotropical,
 In which the organisms present tend to be quite
distinct from those of other realms.
21
 Each biogeographic realm is subdivided into

provinces, which reflect d/t types of env’t within

the realm.

 There are 227 provinces altogether

 Each is distinguished by its ecological features,

climate, and animal and plant communities

22
 What is the importance of distribution patterns?
 Obviously distribution pattern cause to rarity of
some organisms
 However, the pattern of distribution is also
important.
 Local Endemics- saving these spp. is very simple
 Sparsely Distributed Species-
 On opposite site are very difficult to conserve
 Which occur over very large geographical
regions but are not very abundant anywhere
e.g. predators, eagles, ….
23
 Migratory Species

 Migratory species present challenging

problems
 because they often require habitats along
and at each end of their migration routes.

24
 1.5. Biodiversity and Sustainable
Development

1. What is sustainability?

2. How does biodiversity contribute to

sustainability?

25
 1.5. Biodiversity and Sustainable
Development
 Sustainable development;

 refers to development that meets the needs of

the current generation without compromising the
ability of future generations to meet their needs;
it simply refers to intra and intergenerational
equity.
A balance between the environment,
development and society results to sustainable 26
 Biodiversity continues to provide goods and
services needed for human development
 This means maintaining a broad base of genetic
resources and managing natural habitats
 so they continue to support livelihoods,
 especially in areas of low agricultural productivity;

 So needs addressing activities that impact on

biodiversity, such as infrastructure
27
  maintaining the integrity of the environment
to ensure the continued protection of eco-
system services.
 Costs and benefits from all levels of
biodiversity are equitably shared
– This requires decentralization, securing
access to components of biodiversity for
communities 28
 1.6 Threats and Losses of Biodiversity
 Threat - refers to any process or event whether
natural or human induced that is likely to cause
adverse effects upon the status or sustainable
use of any component of biological diversity.
 The loss of biodiversity is a significant issue for
scientists and policy-makers.
 Species are going extinct at an accelerated and
dangerous rate, because of non-natural
environmental changes caused by human
activities. 29
 Some of the activities have direct effects on
species and ecosystems, such as:
 Habitat loss/degradation /fragmentations

 Introduced species / biological invasions

 Overharvesting / over-exploitation of
biodiversity
 Climate change

 Pollution 30
 1. Habitat loss/degradation /fragmentations
Increased insatiable demand for resources
results to land use changes.
 loss to genetic diversity,

Species reduction and increased ecosystem

changes such as random population changes,
disease outcrops, habitat fragmentation among
others resulting in biodiversity losses. 31
2. Overharvesting/over-exploitation of biological
resources
This results when individuals of a particular
species are taken at a higher rate than can be
sustained by the natural reproductive capacity of
the population being harvested.

e.g. Over hunting, fishing, trade, food

gathering etc.
Overharvesting will lead to extinction of 32
 3. Invasion of non-native species
Species introduced in an ecosystem will
cause changes in the ecosystem.
Introduced species are organisms arising in
areas/ habitats in which they were previously
not native. Such introduced species are usually
referred to as biological pollutants.
Some of the ecological impacts of the
invasion include hybridization, out
competition, disruption of original ecosystem,
plant pathogenic influences, disease
transmission, disruption of food webs and to 33
 4. Climate change
by emissions of greenhouse gases when fossil
fuels are burnt, is making life uncomfortably hot
for some species and uncomfortably cold for
others.
This can lead to a change in the abundance and
distribution of individual species around the globe.
5. Pollution
Species in habitats are increasingly being harmed
by industrial activities and pollution from
excessive use of agro-chemicals such as DDT, oil 34
 6. Institutional / policy failure
Some institutions are created to manage
biological resources.
However, the institutions/policy fail to
internalize the values of biodiversity within the
decision making process of their Nations and
individuals. Such institutions/policies in place
should have a holistic approach towards
35
 1.7. Biodiversity and Climate change

 Climate change affects the earth's vegetation by altering

normal cooling and warming cycle.

 Over long periods of time global warming hurts biodiversity.

 Climate change involving average temp. rise of more than

1.5 to 2.5 0C would put 20% to 30% species at risk of

extinction.

36
 Climate change will drive biodiversity loss,
and moderating climate change will, in the
long term, safeguard ecosystem services.
 Protecting biodiversity will also help to
moderate climate change
 Protecting biodiversity will help us adapt to the
unavoidable consequences of climate change.
37
 1.8. The IUCN Categories of Threatened
Species
 The IUCN Red List Categories and Criteria are used for
classifying species at high risk of global extinction.
 Aims of IUCN

 to provide a system that can be applied consistently by

different people;
 to improve objectivity by providing users with clear
guidance on how to evaluate different factors which
affect the risk of extinction; 38
 to provide a system which will facilitate

comparisons across widely different taxa;

 to give people using threatened species lists

a better understanding of how individual

species were classified.

39
Figure . Structure of the categories. 40
 1.8.1. Nature of the categories
 There are nine clearly defined categories of threatened
species
EXTINCT (EX):
 A taxon is Extinct when there is no reasonable doubt
that the last individual has died.
 A taxon is presumed Extinct when exhaustive surveys
in known and/or expected habitat, at appropriate times
(diurnal, seasonal, annual), throughout its historic
range have failed to record an individual.
41
EXTINCT IN THE WILD (EW)

 A taxon is Extinct in the Wild when it is known only to

survive in cultivation, in captivity or as a naturalized
population (or populations) well outside the past range.

 A taxon is presumed Extinct in the Wild when

exhaustive surveys in known and/or expected habitat, at
appropriate times (diurnal, seasonal, annual), throughout
its historic range have failed to record an individual.

42
CRITICALLY ENDANGERED (CR)
– A taxon is Critically Endangered when the best available
evidence indicates that it meets any of the criteria A to E
for critically endanered
– considered to be facing an extremely high risk of
extinction in the wild.

ENDANGERED (EN)
– A taxon is Endangered when the best available evidence
indicates that it meets any of the criteria A to E for
endangered
43
VULNERABLE (VU)
A taxon is Vulnerable when the best available evidence
indicates that it meets any of the criteria A to E for
Vulnerable
NEAR THREATENED (NT)
A taxon is Near Threatened when it has been evaluated
against the criteria but does not qualify for Critically
Endangered, Endangered or Vulnerable now,
 but is close to qualifying for or is likely to qualify for a
threatened category in the near future.
44
LEAST CONCERN (LC)
 A taxon is Least Concern when it has been
evaluated against the criteria and does not qualify
for Critically Endangered, Endangered,
Vulnerable or Near Threatened.
 Widespread and abundant taxa are included in
this category.
DATA DEFICIENT (DD)
– when there is inadequate information to make a
direct, or indirect, assessment of its risk of
extinction based on its distribution and/or
population status.
45
 – A taxon in this category may be well
studied, and its biology well known, but
appropriate data on abundance and/or
distribution are lacking.

NOT EVALUATED (NE)

– A taxon is Not Evaluated when it is has not
yet been evaluated against the criteria.
46
 1.8.2. Nature of the criteria
 There are five quantitative criteria
 These criteria are based around the biological indicators of populations
A. Declining population (past, present and/or projected)
B. Geographic range size, and fragmentation, decline or fluctuations
C. Small population size and fragmentation, decline, or fluctuations
D. Very small population or very restricted distribution
E. Quantitative analysis of extinction risk (e.g., Population Viability
Analysis)
 Most of the criteria also include subcriteria that must be used to
justify more specifically.
47
48
 Chapter Two:
Biodiversity Conservation Techniques and Centers
of biodiversity
2.1 Biodiversity Conservation Strategies
 Biodiversity conservation refers to the management of
human use of biodiversity in order to get the greatest
sustainable benefit to present and future generations.
 Its embraces the protection, maintenance, sustainable
utilization, restoration, and enhancement of
biodiversity
49
 Successful action to conserve biodiversity
must address the full range of causes of its
current loss
 The goals of biodiversity conservation can be
broken down into three basic elements:
Saving biodiversity,

studying it, and

using it sustainably and equitably.

50
 Reasons for conserving biodiversity

Survival of many species and habitats can be ensured

Securing valuable NR for future generations and

protecting the well being of eco-system functions

 Conservation techniques can be grouped into two

basic and complementary strategies:

51
 Types of Conservation Techniques
2.1.1. In-situ Conservation Techniques
 Is the conservation of species in their natural
habitats,
 is considered the most appropriate way of
conserving biodiversity.
 Either by protecting or cleaning up the habitat
itself, or by defending the species from predators.
52
Types of natural habitats being maintained:
• National parks:
– It is an area which is strictly reserved for the betterment
of the wildlife and where activities like grazing or
cultivation are not permitted.
– In these parks, even private ownership rights are not
allowed.
• Strict nature reserves:
– They are strictly protected areas maintained for scientific
study, education, and environmental monitoring.
53
• National monuments:

designed to preserve unique areas of special

national interest.
• Protected landscapes:

– allow sustainable use of the environment by

local people and making it attractive to
tourism and recreation
54
• Sanctuaries:

 is a protected area which is reserved for the

conservation of only animals and
 human activities like harvesting of timber,
collecting minor forest products and private
ownership rights are allowed
 as long as they do not interfere with well-being of
animals.
55
 2.1.2. Ex-situ conservation techniques
• Ex situ conservation is the preservation of components
of biodiversity outside their natural habitats. 
• It is applied as an additional measure to supplement in
situ conservation.
• It is used as valuable tools in studying and conserving
biological resources (plants, animals, and
microorganisms) for different purposes.

56
 Some example of ex situ conservations include:

 Gene banks, e.g. seed banks, sperm and ova

banks, field banks;
 In vitro plant tissue and microbial culture
collections;
 Captive breeding of animals and artificial
propagation of plants, with possible reintroduction
into the wild; and
57
 Collecting living organisms for zoos, aquaria, and
 Advantages of Ex-situ conservation

 Most suitable for long term conservation

 Its storage condition store greater diversity and

quantity of accessions of seeds
 Its evaluation is easier than in-situ circumstances

 It offers wider availability to breeders than do in

situ collections
58
 Disadvantages of Ex-situ conservation

• Population size: cannot host many individuals of

different species especially in case of animals.
• Adaptation: ex-situ species may face difficulty to
adapt the new environment
• Concentration: ex-situ species are concentrated in
small area. So may be destroyed by catastrophe such
as fire, hurricane or epidemic.
• Living skill: ex-situ population may be ignorant to
the new environment and unable to survive in the
wild, unable to recognize the wild food

59
 2.1.3 Complementary conservation

 Both in situ and ex situ means of conservation

are equally important and to be considered
complementary to each other.
 Ex-situ conservation can never take over the
function of in-situ conservation.

60
 2.2. Centers of Biological Diversity

Centers of Origin/Diversity
– The earth’s biodiversity is distributed in specific
ecological regions
– Global 200- 200 most richest, distinctive areas

»50,000 endemic plants

»20 % of global plant life

»occur in only 18 ‘hot spots’

61
• Mega Diversity :

– Countries which have a relatively large proportion

of these hot spots of diversity

– The WCMC recognized 17 mega diverse countries

– harbour more than 70% of the earth's species.

62
 2.2.3. Hotspots of Biodiversity
• are home to the highest diversity of endemics, plants
and animals
• Most of the world’s bio-rich nations are in the South

• Developing nations

• But countries capable of exploiting BD are in north

– Developed nations

63
• In 2004 34 global "biodiversity hotspots" were recognized
• each have lost at least 70% of their original habitat and
• each contain more than 1500 endemic vascular plant
species.
• These sites support nearly 60% of the world's plant, bird,
mammal, reptile, and amphibian species
• Over 50% of the world's plant species and
• 42% of all terrestrial vertebrate species are endemic to the
34 biodiversity hotspots.

64
Wilderness Areas

• It is an area governed by natural processes.

• It is composed of native habitats and species, and

• large enough for the effective ecological

functioning of natural processes

• It is unmodified or only slightly modified and

without intrusive or extractive human activity

65
• includes four qualities

– naturalness,

– undisturbedness,

– undevelopedness and

– scale; an overarching and changing variable

• So their conservation is important for conservation

of species, future evolutionary changes , buffer
effects of climate change and ecosystem properties
66
 2.3 Recent Concepts of Biodiversity
Conservation
2.3.1 Biodiversity Indicators
– are species whose Xstics are used as index of attribute
too difficult, in convenient, or expensive to measure for
other species or environmental conditions of interest.
– Can indicate areas of high biodiversity

• Can be divided in to

– indicate changes in habitat (health indicators) and

– those that serve as a yardstick for change in population

of other species (population indicators) 67
• Indicators of species threats

– Extinct species

– Endangered

– Vulnerable

– Rare

– Insufficiently known

68
Extinct species: which are no longer known to
exist in the wild.

Endangered species: that have high likelihood of

going extinct in the near future

Vulnerable species: that may become endangered

in the near future because
populations of the species are
decreasing in size throughout its 69
Rare species that have small total numbers of individuals

often due to limited geographical ranges or

low population densities.

Insufficiently known species

- that probably belong to one of conservation categories

but are sufficiently well known to be

assigned to a specific category. 70

 2.3. 2 Keystone species
 are those species whose importance to an ecosystem’s
structure, composition, and function is disproportionately
large relative to their abundance.
 These species can be of any life form, but they have in
common an effect on their environment
 even when rare, can drastically modify or create habitats

 the removal of one often results in significant loss of

biodiversity.
71
 2.3. 2 Keystone species
• So to maintain species and ecosystem integrity
keystone species play great role.
• How keystone species identified?

– keystone species can be identified through removal

experiments
– Functional redundancy
• It include Plant , Prey and Predators

72
 2..3.3 Flagship species

 Species selected to act as an ambassador for a

campaign or environmental cause.
 Flagship species are used to attract the attention
of the public.
 Examples include, Mountain Nyala, Walia ibex
e.t.c.
73
 2.3.4 Umbrella species

• Are ‘species with large area requirements, which if

given sufficient protected habitat area, will bring
many other species under protection’.
• Umbrella species

1. Aids to identifying areas of species richness at a large

geographic scale;

2. As a means of encompassing populations of co-

occurring species at a local scale. 74
 2.4.5 Foundation species
• Foundation species are also called "Ecosystem Engineers”.

• The activities of foundation species physically modify the

environment and produce and maintain habitats that
benefit other organisms that use those habitats.
– e.g. Corals build coral reefs that many other species use.

– Beavers harvest trees, thus removing undergrowth and

maintaining an open forest understory.

75
 Chapter Three
3. Biodiversity Measurement and Assessment
3.1 Biodiversity Assessment
 Assessment is collection of information to estimation of resource
supply.
 It is critical to identify priority areas and appropriate conservation
measures.
 Assessment determines whether the resource base is secure or
deteriorating because of overexploitation and depletion
 It is very essential for planning sustainable development strategies
76
 Three kind of information's are important
1.How patterns of species distribution and
processes
Full range of species richness
How the species and habitant vary across land
scope
2. The current distribution and integrity natural
habitant and process.
e.g. Area coverage, degree of habitant
fragmentations community structure
3. Assessment of current and project threats to
existing habitat and process. 77
 To obtained the required information for
planning conservation and monitoring and
evaluating the status of conservation of the
species and habitant , two assessments are
available.

1. Direct ground survey

2. Remote sensing
78
 1. Species inventory / direct ground survey/
 It is direct field inventory or ground survey to
measure the diversity of ecosystem in terms of
 Species richness

 Relative abundance

 Species turnover

 Mostly undertaken at local, also national level

79
 2. Remote Sensing
 From satellites and air craft can be used to
monitor
 Change in the extent of land cover

 The distributions of the habitant

The integrity or the fragmentation of the

habitant
Undertaken at regional and national levels. 80
 3. 1. 1 Measuring Biodiversity
Why biodiversity measurement is needed?
– Monitor and conserve biological diversity

– Used as the basis for making conservation decisions

– To compare biological entities, composed of

different components, in space or in time

81
 Biological diversity can be measured in terms of

 Species richness

 Species abundance

 species turnover

 Diversity usually implies a measure of both

species number and ‘equitability or evenness.

82
 1. Species richness

 It is defined as the number of species in a

sample unit or other specified area.

 It measures how many species are found the

area.

 It is incomplete ways of measuring diversity 83

 It is a measure for the total number of the species in a
community, in a landscape or marine in a region.
– first and oldest concept of diversity

– simplest estimate of diversity

– only residents are counted

– treats common and rare species with the same weight

 it is complete inventories of all species present at a

certain location
84
 2. Species abundance
 It measure to what extent individual are evenly
distributed among the species.
 they are studying species population in a
community or habitat relative to other species
and other habitats.
 Relative abundance is the quantitative pattern of
rarity and commonness among species in a 85
 Sometimes called "performance

Examples: density, frequency, number of

breeding pairs, biomass, basal area.

The abundance of a species (by any measure),

divided by the total abundance of all species

combined 86
 3. Species turnover
 It is measured by difference of the species richness
between habitats
 Characterized by the pattern of the species richness
across heterogeneous ecosystem.
 These measurement take into account the taxonomic
relation between different organisms in a community.
 Taxonomic diversity, for example, reflects the
average taxonomic distance between any two
organisms, chosen at random from a sample.
87
 3.1.2. Diversity Indices
What is diversity index?
A mathematical expression that combines species richness
and evenness as a measure of diversity.

Diversity indices provide more information about

community composition than simply species richness

they also take the relative abundances of different species

into account

The large number of indices are available

88
 But a more appropriate method can be selected on the
basis of:
– ability to discriminate between sites,

– dependence on sample size,

– component of diversity is being measured,

– whether the index is widely used and understood

 Three types of indices can be used on different

biodiversity data analysis.
89
 1. Alpha (α) diversity
 refers to the number of species in a certain
community or designated area.
It can be used to compare the number of
species in particular places or ecosystem types
 Alpha diversity indices can be measured
through:
90
1. Shannon-Wiener diversity function
– values range from near zero to ???
– increased values indicate increased diversity
– index has no units;
– value only as comparison between at least two
communities
• What increases species diversity (H’)?
– increasing the number of species in the community (s)
– increasing the equitability of the abundances of each

91
species in the community
 Shannon-Wiener diversity function

H' = - (pi) [ln(pi)]

Where H’ = Shannon-Wiener index of species

diversity

s = number of species in community

pi = proportion of total abundance represented by ith

species
92
 Shannon-Wiener diversity index
Community 1
Species N pi ln(pi) pi[(ln(pi)]
A 99
B 1

Community 2
Species N pi ln(pi) pi[(ln(pi)]
A 50
B 50

93
 Shannon-Wiener diversity index
Community 1
Species N pi ln(pi) pi[(ln(pi)]
A 99 0.99 -0.010 -0.010
B 1 0.01 -4.605 -0.046
100 1.00 -0.056
H’ 0.056
Community 2
Species N pi ln(pi) pi[(ln(pi)]
A 50 0.50 -0.693 -0.347
B 50 0.50 -0.693 -0.347
100 1.00 -0.694
H’ 0.694
94
 2. Simpson Diversity

 Values ranges from 0-1; where, 1 is highly diverse and 0

less diverse
Simpson diversities increase as richness increases, for a
given pattern of evenness, and
increase as evenness increases, for a given richness,
Simpson diversity is less sensitive to richness and more
sensitive to evenness than Shannon diversity,
 which, in turn, is more sensitive to evenness than is95 a
3. Pielou evenness
 Measurement of equitability among species in the community

E = H’ / Hmax

E = Pielou evenness

H’ = calculated Shannon-Wiener diversity

Hmax = ln(s) [species diversity under maximum

equitability conditions]
 Values range from near zero to 1

96
 Diversity and evenness

Community 1 Community 2

s 2 2

H’ 0.056 0.694

Hmax 0.693 0.693

E 0.081 1.000

97
 Practice by this example
Community 1
Species N pi ln(pi) pi[(ln(pi)]
A 62
B 97
C 110
D 84
E 16

98
 Practice by this example
Community 2
Species N pi ln(pi) pi[(ln(pi)]
A 50
B 90
C 120
D 14
E 84

99
 Practice problem
Community 1 Community 2

H’

Hmax

100
 2. Beta diversity
 is species diversity between ecosystems;

 this involves comparing the number of taxa that are unique to

each of the ecosystems.
 There are different indexes of beta diversity

1. Whittaker index(BT) = SC/S- 1

– SC is the total numbers of species in the study ecosystem;

– S is the average number of species richness in the sample

unit
101
2. Wilson and Shmida index (BT) = [g (H )+l
(H )]/2a.
Where,
– g (H) is the increasing numbers of species along
with changes of habitat grads (gained species);
– l (H) is the decreasing numbers of species along with
changes of habitat grads(lost species),
– a is the average species richness of the adjacent
transects.
102
 3. Gamma (γ) diversity
 refers to the number of species in a large scale, region or
on a continent.
 Is a measure of the overall diversity of for different
ecosystems within a region.
 It allows us to compare large areas that encompass diverse
landscapes or a wide geographical area.
 For example, Kenya with 1000 species of forest birds has
higher gamma diversity than Britain, which has only 200
species. 103
 Gamma diversity can be measured using Sorensen’s
similarity index (SC)

Sorensen’s similarity index (SC)= 2C/(A+B)

• Where,

– C is the number of species common to both of the sites,

– A is the number of species present in one of the site and

– B is the number of species present on the other site.

104
What do you understand from this figure?


 
 
   
 
 3.3. Physiognomic and Floristic Data
3.3.1. Methods of Vegetation Description Based
on Physiognomy and Structure
 Vegetation description is based on external morphology, life form,
stratifications and size of the species present.
 Physiognomy, broadly refers to

structure (height, spacing, and shape),

growth form (gross morphology and growth aspect), and

external appearance (leaf seasonality, phenology, duration,

size, shape, and texture) of the dominant or characteristic
plants. 106
Biome = Vegetataion “type based on “Physiognomy”

107
 it is sometimes important the vertical (i.e.
stratification) and horizontal (i.e. open- or
closed-canopy) structure of the plant
community.
 The basic unit of many physiognomic
classifications is the formation of a "community
type.
 Physiognomic classifications have been used
for 108
Tropical rainforest
Savanna, tropical dry forest
Desert
 Mediterranean Climate:
Shrublands…..
Called “chaparral” in California

Pinnacles National Park CA From inside a Paleolithic cave in France

Temperate forest
 Criteria for physiognomic classification commonly
include

1.Plant growth forms that dominate the vegetation

(e.g., herb, grass, shrub, tree),

2.Plant density or cover,

3.Size of the dominant plants, and

4.Vertical layering (e.g., single stratum,

multistrata).
114
3.3.2. Methods of Vegetation Description Based on
Floristic
 The species present in the studies are identified and
their present/absence or abundance is recorded.
 Floristic classifications take, as the basis for
defining community types, the taxonomic identity
of the plants in the community.
 Floristic characterization uses species composition
to describe stands.
115
 Methods range from describing only the
dominant species to listing and recording the
abundance of all species present in the stand
 Floristic classifications arise from the
vegetation data obtained using vegetation
plots.
 Each plot record typically includes,
 The list of (vascular) plant species found in the
community
 Along with an estimation of abundance.
116
 Quadrats
 It is a sampling frame for recording plant species.

 The usual means sampling vegetations for describing the floristic

composition .
 Quadrat are square, although rectangular and even circular quadrants
have been used.

117
 The purpose of quadrats is to established standard area
for examining the vegetations.
 Quadrat size vary from one vegetation type to an
another.
 The 1 meter square quadrat is perhaps most familiar but
cannot be used in all habitats.
 Mostly 20 m *20 m for natural forest

 10*10 for shrubs

 1*1 or less for herbs 118

 Measurement of Species abundance
 A very important distinction is made present/absence and
abundant data.
 Only the occurrence of the species within a quadrate is
noted and there is no measurement of the amount of each
species.
 Abundance measures can be categorized into two groups

 Subjective and objective measures

119
1. Subjective measures
 These are estimated by eyes and thus value will
vary from one recorder to another.
 Subjective measures includes frequency
symbol and cover estimated by eye.
2. Objective measures
 Where more accurate and precise measures are
taken, which should not vary one recorder to
another.
 Objective measure includes density, frequency
and cover estimation using a cover pin frame.
120
 Density: number of individuals per unit area or volume.

 Frequency: The proportion or percentage of

subsamples which contain the species. If Mango were
found in 5 out of 8 observation points, their frequency
would be 5/8 = 0.625

 Basal Area: Commonly used for woody plants.

 The cross- sectional area of all trees of a given

species combined.

121
 Cover: A measure of the vertical projection onto the
ground.
It can include overlaps or not.

If based on pin samples, cover usually does

include overlaps, but if based on visual estimates,
it usually does not. 
For visual estimates, some count "empty space"
within a clump and others do not.
122
 How do we quantify the number
& relative abundance of species in
communities?
 Species abundances
 Rank-abundance curves
 Species numbers ( richness)
and
 Species diversity
 Not all species are equal!

123
3.4. Sampling Design for Vegetation Description
and Analysis
 Sampling means making a number of independent
random observations for the species or area of
interest.

 The data collected is then used to estimate the mean

(and SD) for the sampled population.

 The primary determinant of sampling design should be

the aim and objectives of the projects.
124
 Factors such as the time and resource available
for the study and types of habitant and
proposed methods data analysis and
presentations must also be considered.
 There are many vegetation description
sampling designs
 Basically designs generally fall into the
following categories.
1. Probability sampling - Simple random
sampling
- Stratified random
sampling
125
 1. Probability sampling
 Randomizations is employed in selecting a
sample.
 it is possible to apply statistical sampling theory
and obtained unbiased estimate of the sampling
error .
 The probability is greater than zero and less than 1
and may be equal for all units or it may vary.

2. Non random sampling

 Uniform Distribution Random Distribution
S2/X < 1.0 S2/X  1.0

The more uniformly

distributed, the less the
variance.
Variance to mean ration
gives us a metric to compare
distributions.

Aggregated Distribution
S2/X > 1.0
 3.4.1. Preferential (selective) sampling

 This consists of choosing samples according

to the subjective judgement of the observer.
 The methods is subjective since it is based on
information's and experience rather than the
statistical theory of randomizations.
 The selection procedure is selective sampling
which is not at random. 128
 3.4.2. Random sampling
 Random sampling is sampling of individual at random

 It is further divided into simple and stratified random

sampling.
 Stratified random sampling is more appropriate and
efficient when natural vegetation and plantation forests
are inventoried.
 There is no one-inventory design universally
applicable for all inventories.
129
 The design to be used to meet the forest inventory
objectives is determined by the:
kind of sampling units;

size and shape of the samples;

manner of selection (random or systematic);

distribution of the samples;

procedure of measurements; and

analysis of the data.

130
 Therefore, the design to use is the end product of a
series of considerations including:
 kind of information required and its desired
precision;
 composition of the forest and its variability;
 topography and accessibility to and within the forest;
 availability of personnel and level of skill;
 time and money available for the inventory;
 availability of essential materials, e.g. photographs,
maps, and imageries; and
 knowledge of the designer on statistics and sampling
theory.
131
 3.4.2.1. Simple random sampling

 Each sampling unit in the population has an equal

chance of being selected for the study.

 It is used to sample individuals of homogeneous

population

 Not common b/s difficult to get homogenous population

132
 3.4.2.2. Stratified random sampling

 Stratification is a process of dividing the original

population in to more homogeneous sub-populations
for the purpose of reducing the variance.
 Each segregated sub-population is called a stratum.

 Stratification of the project area into a number of

relatively homogeneous units can reduce the number
of plots needed.
133
 Potential stratification options include:

 land use e.g. forest, plantation, grassland,

cropland, etc.;
 species found in the vegetation;

 slope, e.g. steep or flat;

 aspect;

 drainage, e.g. flooded or dry;

 elevation;
134
 A stratified random sample is one obtained by

separating the population elements into non-

overlapping groups, called strata, and then selecting

a simple random sample from each stratum.

 This procedure, in most instances, increases the

quantity of information for a given cost.

135
 The principal reasons for using stratified random
sampling are:

 Produce a smaller error during estimation

 The cost per observation in the survey may be

reduced

• estimates of the population parameters may be

desired for sub-groupings of the populations.

• These sub-groups should then be identifiable

strata. 136
 3.4.3. Systematic Sampling
 In this type of design the sampling units are spaced at fixed
intervals throughout the forest area.

 It is sampling process in Every kth unit from a population

 It is widely used in practice and is easy to learn.

 systematic sampling is usually more precise than simple

random sampling

 because it actually stratifies the population into n strata,

each stratum containing k elements.
137
 The difference between systematic sampling &
stratified sampling is that the systematic
sample is spread more evenly over the entire
population than a stratified sample
 because in stratified sampling the samples in
the strata are drawn separately.
 This adds precision in some cases.
138
 3.4.4. Transect Sampling

 Transects are simply lines (usually tape

measures) that are used to create a linear scale
against which to take sample.

139
 3.4.6. Plotless Sampling
 Plotless methods are recommended only when individuals are
randomly distributed and individual spacing (e.g., >20 m)
prevents detection in randomly or systematically placed plots.
 Counting the number of plants in a quadrat can be very time
consuming.
 Therefore, alternative methods have been developed  that are
based on the distance between plants or the distance from a
specific point and a plant.

140
 Techniques based on this premise are called plotless or
distance-based techniques.
 The basic idea of these distance techniques is that
density can be calculated if the average space occupied
by individual plants can be determined.
 Plotless techniques can have several advantages over
quadrat-based techniques:

- Usually faster (especially in sparse communities).

141
– Requires less equipment - just need a way to

measure distance (e.g., meter stick, tape measure).

– Does not require selection or adjustment in quadrat

size.

– It is not surprising that the distances between

plants or between a selected point and plants in the

area are related by basic principles of geometry. 

142
 1) Point-Centered Quarter
 The distance from a sample point to the
nearest plant in each of four quarters or
quadrants are measured.
  Choose a series of points in the sample
area (at least 15).
 Place a “cross” or “plus” shaped
guide/frame over the point.
  Measure the distance from the point to the
nearest plant of interest in each of the
quadrants outlined by the cross-shaped
guide. 143
 Estimate Density:

– D = Density or # of individual/specified area

– A = Specified area (i.e., 1 m2 or 1 hectare)

– d = Average of 4 distances measured from center

point to nearest plant in each quarter
– The units of A and d must be the same. For
example if A is selected as m2 then d should be
expressed in meters for calculations.
144
• For example:  The average distance to a plant (d)
= .61 meters.
Distance of point to
 If we want to express density in
shrub number of plants/m2 then 1
Quarter 1= 0.5 m m2/(.61)2 = 2.7 plants/m2
 If you want to express density in
Quarter 2 = 0.35 m
number of plants per hectare in this
Quarter 3 = 0.4 m example then:
Quarter 4 = 1.2 m There are 10,000 m2 in a ha so
10,000 m2/(.61)2 = 27,027 plants/ha.
The technique assumes that the area around plants is
roughly circular and points are far enough apart so that
no plant is measured twice 145
 2) Nearest Neighbor
• The distance from a selected plant
to its nearest plant (neighbor) is
measured.
•  Choose a referent plant - (usually
the closest individual to a selected
point)
•  Identify the plant closest to the
referent plant and measure the
distance between these two plants.
146
  Densit

y:
D = Density or # of individual/ specified area

A = Specified area (i.e., 1 m2 or 1 hectare)

d = Distance measured from target plant to nearest plant (Note:

the target plant is the plant closest to the sampling point)
• The 1.67 is a multiplier determined through field experiments
that allows for accurate estimates of area covered

• The units of A and d must be the same.

147
 3) Closest Individual

 The distance from a sample

point to the closest
individual is measured. 
 Choose a series of points in
the sample area
  Measure the distance to the
closest plant of interest 148
D = Density or # of individual/ specified area

A = Specified area (i.e., 1 m2 or 1 hectare)

d = Distance measured from point to nearest plant in any

direction.

d = Summation of distances over n

The units of A and d must be the same.

For example if A is selected as m2 then d should be expressed in

meters for calculations.
149
 Chapter Four
Agrobiodiversity
4.1 Definitions of Agrobiodiversity
 Agrobiodiversity is the variety and variability of
animals, plants and micro-organisms that are
used directly or indirectly for food & agriculture
 it is the result of natural selection processes and
the careful selection and inventive developments
150

of farmers, herders and fishers over millennia.

 Agrobiodiversity or the genetic resources for food and
agriculture, includes:

1. Harvested crop varieties, livestock breeds, fish species,

forest, wild animals hunted for food and in aquatic
ecosystems (e.g. wild fish);

2. Non-harvested species in production ecosystems that

support food provision, including soil micro-biota,
pollinators and other insects
 Non-harvested species in the wider environment that
support food production ecosystems (agricultural,
151
152
 Agrobiodiversity is a vital sub-set of biodiversity.

 Many people’s food and livelihood security depend

on the sustained management of various biological

resources that are important for food and

agriculture.
153
 Agrobiodiversity is central to overall
biodiversity

154
 Agrobiodiversity is the result of the interaction b/n the
environment, genetic resources and mang’t systems & practices
 AgBD encompasses the variety and variability of animals,
plants and micro-organisms that are necessary for sustaining
key functions of the agro-ecosystem, including its structure and
processes for, and in support of, food production and food
security.
 Local knowledge and culture can therefore be considered as
integral parts of AgBD, because it is the human activity of
agriculture that shapes and conserves this biodiversity. 155
 4.2 Distinctive Features of
Agrobiodiversity
 There are several distinctive features of agrobiodiversity,
compared to other components of biodiversity:
 Agrobiodiversity is actively managed by male and female
farmers;
 many components of agrobiodiversity would not survive
without this human interference;
 many economically important agricultural systems are based
on ‘alien’ crop or livestock species introduced from elsewhere.
156
 as regards crop diversity, diversity within species is
at least as important as diversity between species;
 the degree of human management, conservation of
agrobiodiversity in production systems is inherently
linked to sustainable use – preservation through
establishing protected areas is less relevant;
 in industrial-type agricultural systems, much crop
diversity is now held ex situ in gene banks or
breeders’ materials rather than on-farm. 157
 4.3 The Roles of Agrobiodiversity
 Increase productivity, food security, and economic returns
 Reduce the pressure of agriculture on fragile areas, forests
and endangered species
 Make farming systems more stable, robust, and sustainable
 Contribute to sound pest and disease management
 Conserve soil and increase natural soil fertility and health
 Contribute to sustainable intensification
 Diversify products and income opportunities
158
 Reduce spread risks to individuals and nations

 Help maximize effective use of resources and the

environment
 Reduce dependency on external inputs

 Improve human nutrition and provide sources of

medicines and vitamins, and
 Conserve ecosystem structure and stability of
159
species diversity.
 4.4 What is Happening to loss
Agrobiodiversity?
 Locally varied food production systems are under threat,

including local knowledge and the culture and skills of women

and men farmers.

 With this decline, AgBD is disappearing; the scale of the loss is

extensive.

 With the disappearance of harvested species, varieties and breeds,

160
a wide range of un harvested species also disappear.
 Causes for rapid loss of agrobiodiversity are:

Population growth,

Changes in food demand

land use change and conversion to modern

high-input agriculture and
Globalization of agricultural markets.
161
 Answer the following question

1.What is agrobiodiversty mean?

2.One private owner was established 1mx1m

planting space of cuppressus lustanical plantation
in 2003. the owner is want to collect assessment of
their own resource. What types of design should be
recommended to collect assessment of their
resource and justify the reason your recommended
? 162
 Chapter five
5. Invasive/Alien Species Vs Biodiversity
 Invasive/Alien –is a plant or animals that is non-native to
specific location and have been introduced both
accidentally and intentionally.
 Intentional introductions have been, motivated by
economic, environmental and social considerations.

 These aliens come in the form of plants, animals and

microbes that have been introduced into an area from
other parts of the world, and have been able to displace
163
 5.1. Global Trends of Invasive Species
 Global trade has enabled modern societies to
benefit from the unprecedented movement and
establishment of species around the world.
 Agriculture, forestry, fisheries, the horticultural
industry, and many industrial consumers of raw
materials today depend on species that are native to
distant parts of the world.
164
 Expanding global trade is providing additional
opportunities for societal enrichment.
 But these movements of species by humans are
also having, in some cases, negative impacts on
local ecosystems and the species of which they
are composed.
 Local and national economies are also being
affected.
165
 A new challenge is to identify when these alien or non-
indigenous species are bringing harmful changes to:
 Ecosystems, biodiversity, health, economics or
other aspects of human welfare.
 Thus, those alien species that become established in a
new environment, then proliferate and spread in ways
that are destructive to human interests are considered
"invasive alien species" (IAS).

166
 5.2. Impacts of Invasive Species
 Invasive alien species occur in all major taxonomic groups.

 They include viruses, fungi, algae, mosses, ferns, higher

plants, invertebrates, fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds and
mammals.
 Within each taxa, numerous species, including perhaps as
many as 10% of the world's vascular plants (300,000), have
the potential to invade other ecosystems and affect native
biota in a direct or indirect way.

167
 Invasive/alien species becomes a predators, competitors,
parasites and diseases of our native and domesticated
plant and animals.
 The impact of invasive alien species on native
ecosystems, habitant and species is sever and often
irreversible and can cost billions of dollars each year
 The impact of invasive alien species are some of the
following
 Environmental impact 168
 Environmental impact

Can negatively impact on biodiversity

Can cause species distributions and even

extinctions

can cause soil degradations and soil erosions

Can alter fire cycle

169
 Societal impact

 Can cause disease

 Can cause human and animal suffering

 Can reduce land and water recreational

opportunities
170
 Economic impact
Control and management cost can be
significant
Can reduce productivities in forestry,
agricultural and fish sectors
 can cause export an import trade restrictions

Can reduce property values

171
 Invasive / Alien species do not only have

socio-economic or biologically harmful

effects.

 They can also bring some benefits,

 example timber, ornamental value or as

fodder animals. 172

 Group Assignment
1. The Convention on Biological Diversity
(CBD)

2. Cartagena Protocol (Biosafety)

3. Convention on Wetlands (RAMSAR),

4. Access and Benefit Sharing

5. Intellectual Property right on Biological

Resources 173
 5.3. Managing Invasive Species
 Once an alien species has become a widespread invasive, the

economic and often environmental costs of eradicating the invader.

 There are three different national strategy to manage invasive species.

1. Prevention.

2. Early detection and rapid response.

3. Control and management.

174
 1. Prevention

 Stop invasive species before they arrive.

 It is not allowing a potentially invasive species to

become established in the first place (the first line of

defense).

 Should not be introduced without appropriate analysis

and EIA
175
 2. Early detection and rapid response
The main management responses after a
species has invaded.
Find new infestations and eliminate them
before they become established.
Detect and eradicate invasive species to stop
them from spreading.
176
 3. Control Methods
 Contain and reduce existing infestations.

The control methods of invasive species can be

classified into four: these includes manual , mechanical ,
chemical and biological control methods

1. Manual method- is used in a condition where labour is

plentiful and cheap.

- More effective the invasive species

are very small
 2. Mechanical control methods
Commonly used machines for Suppression or
elimination invasive species in the area .
weeds suppression are physically destroyed but not
necessary killed
weed elimination they are totally killed by
cultivation or the use of chemical
 It is preferred in large invasive species area.
 3. Chemical control methods
refers to the use of pesticides, and for all practical
purposes.
 some invasive organisms cannot be controlled
without the use of pesticides.
There are many kinds of herbicides, insecticides, and
fungicides, and not all of them will be appropriate for
every situation.
The choice of pesticide depends on the target
179
 4. Biological control methods
refers to the use of animals, fungi or diseases to
control invasive populations.
 Control organisms usually come from the
native range of the target species, and require a
period of study to ensure that they will remain
specific to the target population, and will not harm
native species, crops, or other ornamental species.
180
 5.4. Common Invasive Species in Ethiopia

• For two decades, Invasive Alien Species (IAS)

have been one of the emerging problems facing in
Ethiopia.
• Several alien species are spreading at alarming
rate, threatening agricultural lands, rangelands,
national parks, waterways, lakes, rivers, power
dams, roadsides and urban green spaces.
181
Table 1. Identified and prioritised Invasive Alien Species in Ethiopia.

Identified Species Preliminary Prioritisation

Eichhornia crassipes Prosopis juliflora
Lantana camara Parthenium hysterophorous
Parthenium hysterophorous Striga spp.
Prosopis juliflora Eichhornia crassipes
Striga spp. Lantana camara
Acacia spp.* Acacia spp.*
Orobanche spp.
Cuscuta campestris
Argemone mexicana
Verbesina enceliodies
Opuntia Spp.
182
Foremost among these:

Parthenium weed (Parthenium hysterophorus)

 is believed to be introduced accidentally through food
aid shipments, and
 is spreading rapidly, causing up to 90% reduction in
forage production in some places.
 Its impact in natural habitats has not been assessed,
but it clearly poses a major threat to rangelands
183
 Prosopis (Prosopis juliflora)

 The species was purposely introduced as a forestry tree in the

Awash basin.

 but now threatens agricultural land and protected areas in the

Awash National Park.

 It is aggressively invading pastoral areas, destroying natural

pasture, displacing native trees, and reducing grazing potential.

184
 Water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes)
 Over the last 30 years, water hyacinth has been
slowly spreading in Ethiopia
 is most serious in the White Nile watershed and
the Awash River system, with pronounced
impacts on ecosystem function and human
activities.
185
 Lantana (Lantana camara)

usually been deliberately introduced into various

localities in Ethiopia

as an ornamental shrub, and has been quickly spread

by birds and animals that eat its fruits but cannot
digest the woody seeds.

Hot spot areas of Lantana are reported to be in eastern

Harerge and neighboring localities of the Somali
region
186
 Quiz 5%

1.What is invasive species mean and how to

introduce the invasive species in our country?

2. What is the difference between weeds

suppression and elimination?

3.Write at list two Preliminary

Prioritisation/identified / invasive species in
Ethiopia? 187
 Chapter Six
6. Biodiversity Conservation Policies, Conventions,
Legal Frameworks
6.1. The Convention on Biological Diversity
 The convention on biodiversity (CBD) is the framework
agreement that gives goals and policies rather than legally
binding obligations for the conservation of biodiversity.
 Developed by intergovernmental negotiating committee and
adopted on 22 May 1992 in Nairobi, Kenya.
 Opened for signature on 5 June 1992 at the Rio Earth summit.

188
 Initially signed by 168 states.

 Discussions on the implications of the CBD and

agreements on how to implement the CBD were done
through the conference of the parties.
 COP is the highest organ of the CBD.

 Each COP brings representatives of the states that were

signatory to the CBD as well as observers including NGOs.
 It is probably the most all-encompassing international
agreement ever adopted.

189
 It seeks to conserve the diversity of life on Earth at all levels
- genetic, population, species, habitat, and ecosystem.
 Achieving the goals of the Convention will require:
Effective use of existing knowledge;
a deeper understanding of human ecology and
environmental effects.
environmentally more benign practices and technologies
must be applied; and
unprecedented technical and financial cooperation at
international level is needed. 190
 Objectives of CBD
 There are three general objectives of the
convention on biological diversity

1. The conservation of biological diversity;

2. The sustainable use of its components;

3. The fair and equitable sharing of the

benefits
191
 The convention recognizes:

 The importance of traditional knowledge

the wealth of knowledge

 innovations and practices of indigenous and

local communities that are relevant for the
conservation and
 sustainable use of biological diversity.
192
 Conservation and Sustainable use
 States are obliged to develop national strategies and plans
to integrate conservation and sustainable use of
biodiversity into relevant sectoral and cross-sectoral plans,
programmes and policies as well as in decision making.
 Priorities need to be set by identifying:
 Species/ecosystems that are particularly threatened,
 Systems that offer the potential for use of biodiversity to be
sustainable, and
 Activities that could adversely impact biodiversity .
193
 6.2. Cartagena Protocol (Biosafety)
 Early 1970s, modern biotechnology has
enabled scientists to genetically and
biochemically modify plants, animals and
micro-organisms to create living modified
organisms (LMOs).
 Many countries with biotechnology industries
already have domestic legislation in place
intended to ensure the safe transfer, handling,
use and disposal of LMOs and their products.
 These precautionary practices are collectively
known as "biosafety." 194
 Biosafety is one of the issues addressed by the CBD.

 This concept refers to the need to protect human health

and the environment from the possible adverse effects of
the products of modern biotechnology.
 modern biotechnology is recognized as having a great
potential for the promotion of human well-being,
particularly in meeting critical needs for food,
agriculture and health care.

195
 It has two aspects:

it provides for the access to and transfer of technologies,

including biotechnology, that are relevant to the
conservation and sustainable use of biological diversity.
 to ensure the development of appropriate procedures to
enhance the safety of biotechnology in the context of the
Convention’s overall goal.

i.e. of reducing all potential threats to biological

diversity, taking also into account the risks to human
health.
196
 Objectives
 To contribute to ensuring an adequate level of
protection in the field of the safe transfer, handling
and use of living modified organisms resulting from
modern biotechnology that may have adverse effects
on the conservation and sustainable use of biological
diversity,
 Taking also into account risks to human health, and
specifically focusing on transboundary movements.
197
 6.3. Convention on Wetlands (RAMSAR)
 The Convention on Wetlands is an intergovernmental treaty
adopted on 2 February 1971 in the Iranian city of Ramsar.
 Ramsar is the first of the modern global intergovernmental treaties
on the conservation and sustainable use of natural resources.
 The Convention has three main 'pillars' of activity:
 the promotion of the wise-use of all wetlands in the territory of each country

 international co-operation with other countries to further the wise-use of

wetlands and their resources.
 Conventions on wetlands of international importance

198
 The Convention on Wetlands of International
Importance especially as Waterfowl Habitat, reflects the
original emphasis upon the conservation and wise use of
wetlands primarily as habitat for waterbirds.
 Over the years the Convention has broadened its scope
of implementation to cover all aspects of wetland
conservation and wise use, recognizing wetlands as
ecosystems that are extremely important for biodiversity
conservation and for the well-being of human
199
 The Convention entered into force in 1975.

 Now has 162 (06/2012) Contracting Parties, or

member States, in all parts of the world.
 The Parties have created the List of Wetlands of
International Importance with more than 2,040
wetlands.
 These wetlands cover more than 192 million
hectares and have a status for special protection
200
 6.4 Access and Benefit Sharing(ABS)
 ABS is an agreement that defines the fair and equitable
sharing of benefits arising from the use of genetic
resources.
 All living organisms; plants, animals and microbes,
carry genetic material that could be potentially useful to
humans.
 These resources can be taken from the wild,
domesticated or cultivated.
201
 They provide a crucial source of information
to better understand the natural world and can
be used to develop a wide range of products
and services for human benefit.
 These include products such as medicines and
cosmetics, as well as agricultural and
environmental practices and techniques.
202
 However, many key resources in the world, genetic
resources are not evenly distributed.
 The way in which genetic resources are accessed, and
how the benefits of their use are shared,
 The CBD establishes two main principles for
implementing ABS by its member states.

1. Prior informed consent (PIC)

2. Mutually agreed terms (MAT)

203
 1. Prior informed consent (PIC):
ABS is based on prior informed consent (PIC)
being granted by a provider to a user.
It is the permission given by the competent
national authority of a provider country to a user
prior to accessing genetic resources, in line with
an appropriate national legal and institutional
framework. 204
 2. Mutually agreed terms (MAT)
 ABS is based on negotiations between provider and
user to develop mutually agreed terms (MAT) to
ensure the fair and equitable sharing of benefits.
 It is an agreement reached between the providers of
genetic resources and users on conditions of access
and use of the resources, and the benefits to be
shared between both parties.
205
 Quiz 5%

1.Write three general objectives of the

convention on biological diversity ( 1.5
point)?

2. write two main principles for

implementing ABS(2 point) ?

3.Write at list three Preliminary

Prioritisation/identified / invasive species in 207