Sampling and Sampling Techniques

CONTENTS:
● Introduction
● Terminologies
● Ideal requirements of sample
● Steps of sampling

- Sampling techniques:
1)Probability sampling

2)Non Probability sampling

CONTENTS:

● Errors in sampling
● Conclusion
● References
INTRODUCTION

-In a survey if the population of interest is too large to attempt survey

of all of its members the time taken, persons involved, cost will be
more.

-In order to reduce the time and cost, persons involved,to reduce the
bias there is a need to select a sample from the surveying population.

-There are various sampling techniques which are used.

Terminologies:
Sample:
-Subset of population that defines the whole population.
Sampling:
- The process or technique of selecting a sample of appropriate
characteristics and adequate size

-Soben peter.Essentials of Preventive and Community Dentistry.4th edition.Arya

Publishers;2009.-K.Park.Park’s Textbook of Preventive and Social Medicine.17th
Sampling frame:
-Listing of members of the universe from which sample is to be
drawn.

-K.Park.Park’s Textbook of Preventive and Social Medicine.17th ed.Banarsidas

Bhanot; 2002.
Ideal requirements of sample:
1) Efficiency
2) Representativeness
3) Measurability
4) Size
5) Coverage
6) Goal orientation
7) Feasibility
8) Economy and cost efficiency
Steps of sampling:

Clearly Define Target Population

Select Sampling Frame

Choose Sampling Technique

Determine Sample Size

Collect Data

Assess Response Rate

Clearly Define Target Population:

● The first stage in the sampling process is to clearly define target

population.
● Target population is the members of the population from which
sample is actually selected.
 Select Sampling Frame:There are 2 ways

PURPOSIVE SELECTION: RANDOM SELECTION:

- Selected according to the -Every individual in population has an equal

purpose
chance of appearing in sample.

- Easy to carry out -Sample of units selected in such a way that all
the characteristics of the population reflected in
a sample.

-Underrepresents the rate of -The sampling provides better estimate of

population under study
parameters when compare to purposive
Importance of sampling frame:

-The sampling frame must be representative of the population.

-The accuracy and completeness of sampling frame influences the

quality of sample.
SAMPLING METHODS:

● Different sampling techniques are available based on type and

nature of population and objectives of the study or investigation
 Sampling techniques:
Probability sampling Non probability sampling

1.Simple random sampling 1.Quota sampling

2.Systematic random sampling 2.Purposive sampling

3.Stratified random sampling 3.Convenience sampling

4.Cluster sampling

5.Multiphase sampling

6.Multistage sampling
Probability sampling:

● Recommended method of sampling.

● Each individual unit in the total population has a known probability
of being selected.Therefore generalization can be made to the
parent population with precision and confidence.
Simple random sampling:

● Each unit included in the population has equal chance of inclusion

in the sample.
● Provides the unbiased and better estimation of the parameters if
the population is homogeneous.
Steps in simple random sampling:
-To ensure randomness any of the following methods can be followed:
1)Lottery Method of Sampling:
2)Random Number Table
Horizontal

6 39
70 29
12
34 21 37 61
vertical 88
6 92
90 93
49 51 57
77
81 67
Advantages:
1.Easy to conduct and collect the sample.
2.High possibility to get representative data.
3. Assures randomness and eliminates the bias.
Disadvantages:
1. Costs of obtaining the sample can be high if the units are
geographically widely scattered.
2. It is difficult to contact all the members of sample.
Example :
The use of the Index of Orthodontic Treatment Need in dental primary care
-The primary objective of this survey was to assess the use of the Index of
Orthodontic Treatment Need (IOTN) in dental primary care (Scottish general
dental services – SGDS), and to compare orthodontic specialists (OS) and
general dental practitioners (GDPs).

Sample:Randomly selected sample of general dental practitioners (GDPs),

n = 315, and all orthodontic specialist practitioners (OS), n = 49, identified as
working in the SGDS.

-J. Ho-A-Yun et al.The use of the Index of Orthodontic Treatment Need in dental primary
care.BRITISH DENTAL JOURNAL.2009; 206:1-5.
Systematic random sampling

● Every nth case after a random start is selected, i;e selecting one
unit at random and selecting additional units at evenly spaced
intervals till the adequate sample size has been got.
Advantage :

1. Simplicity
2. Easy to select sample
3. Easy to check errors

Disadvantages:

4. Inaccurate data.
Example:
To obtain a sample from the students of class of 100 students.
Where n=20
Stratified random sampling:

● It is applied when population does not have homogeneous group

● Used when comparison of groups of different characteristics.

Advantages:

● Ensures more representativeness.

● Provides greater accuracy and can concentrate on a wider
geographical area.
Sample is obtained using following procedure:
Example:

● A cross-sectional retrospective study of normal changes in the

pharyngeal airway volume in white children with 3 different skeletal
patterns from age 9 to 15 years: Part 1
● patients were stratified by age, sex, and anteroposterior skeletal
pattern.

-Loren chan et al,A cross-sectional retrospective study of normal changes in the pharyngeal
airway volume in white children with 3 different skeletal patterns from age 9 to 15 years: Part
1. 2020;158(5):710-721.
Cluster sampling:

● Used where the whole population is divided into clusters or

natural groups.
● Random sample is taken from these clusters
PROCEDURE OF CLUSTER SAMPLING:
Advantages:

● Time-efficient and cost-efficient design for large geographical areas

● Simple and easy to use

Disadvantages:

● Requires group-level information to be known

● Commonly has higher sampling error than other sampling techniques
● Cluster sampling may fail to reflect the diversity in the sampling frame
Example:
-Fluorosis in population in districts of Telangana.
Clusters:
Eg: Mandals, Villages, wards etc.
Multiphase sampling:

● It is a process part of information is collected from sample and

part of it from sub sample
● This method may be used when interest in any specific disease.
Procedure:

-This type of survey is less costly, less laborious and more purposeful .
Example:

-In a school health survey.

Phase 1- all the childrens in school are examined.

Phase 2- Childrens with oral health problems are examined.

Phase 3- Childrens with malocclusion are selected for the

treatment.
Multistage sampling:

● It is a process of moving from a broad to a narrow sample, using a

step by step process
● Normally in multi-stage sampling design is applicable in a big
inquires of geographical area, for the entire country
● Multistage sampling technique is also referred to as cluster
sampling, it involves the use of clusters or subgroups for the
sampling.
Stage 1: choice of states
with in country.

Stage 2: choice of
districts in states.

Stage3: choice of towns in

each district.
Advantage:

● It permits the available resources to be concentrated on a limited

number of units of the frame, but in this sampling technique the
sampling error will be increased.
● Takes less time and money.
Example :

-Prevalence of malocclusion and orthodontic treatment needs among

12-15 years old school children of, India.

-Tak M, Nagarajappa R, Sharda AJ, Asawa K, Tak A. Prevalence of malocclusion and

orthodontic treatment needs among 12 - 15 years old school children of India. Eur J Dent
2013;7: 45–53.
Non probability sampling:
-These samples are not truly representative so these are less
desirable.
USES:
1.When researcher may not be able to obtain random sample.
2. If it is too expensive to collect random sample
3.When it may not be necessary to generalize to a larger population.
Quota sampling:
-Participants are chosen on the basis of predetermined characteristics.
- Participants divided into sub groups.
Advantages:
● Very easy, less in cost and conveniently to use in case of a larger
population
EXAMPLE:

-Quantitative assessment of palatal bone thickness in an ethnic Indian

population: A computed tomography study

Sample: CT data for 60 patients (30 males and 30 females) in two

different age-groups (group A: 15-24 years; group B: 25-35 years) were
taken.

The measurements were made in two planes- transverse and sagittal

-Ganesan Jayakumar et,al.Quantitative assessment of palatal bone thickness in an ethnic

Indian population: A computed tomography study.Indian Journal of Dental Research. 2012;
23(1): 49-52.
Purposive or judgmental sampling:

- sampling units are selected according to the purpose.And

constructed to serve a very specific need.
MERITS :
● Simple
● Facilitates purpose of the study.

DEMERITS:
● Provides biased estimation
● Not statistically reliable.
EXAMPLE:

● Purpose of study: The Role of MSX1 in Human Tooth Agenesis

● A total of 92 individuals, affected with congenital tooth agenesis
were taken.

-A.C.Lidral, B.C. Reising.The Role of MSX1 in Human Tooth Agenesis.:

J Dent Res. 2002;81(4):274–278.
➔ Sub set of purposive sampling is snowball sampling(chain referral
sampling)
-Named because one pics up the sample along the way. Like a
snowball accumulating snow.
Convenience sampling:

-Convenience sampling is taking what we can get , because they are

often readily and conveniently available.
Advantages of convenience sampling:
Example :
● Mental distress in orthodontic patients during the coronavirus disease 2019
pandemic.
● An online survey was conducted on a convenience sample of anonymous
participants. The questionnaire, in Chinese (Mandarin), comprised 5 sections.
Sections 1-3 included demographic, epidemical, and orthodontic status of the
patients. Section 4 assessed mental health-related to orthodontics. Section 5
was the Kessler-10 Mental Distress Scale.Orthodontists were invited to
distribute the questionnaires to their patients.

-Xin Xiong et al.Mental distress in orthodontic patients during the coronavirus disease
2019 pandemic.Am J Orthod Dentofacial Orthop 2020;158:824-33.
Sample size:

● Sample size calculations for research projects are an essential

part of a study protocol for submission to ethical committees.
● In order to avoid sampling errors or biases, a random sample
needs to be of adequate size.
● The fixation of the adequate sample size requires specific
information about the problems under investigation in the
population under study
Significance:

● Sample size is important principally due to its effect on statistical

power.
● Bigger the sample size higher will be the precision and power of
study increases.
● In order to avoid sampling errors or biases, a random sample
needs to be of adequate size.
● Sample size becomes important when composition of sample is
heterogenous.
● Heterogeneity tends to increase variability and making it more
difficult to detect the differences of clinical interest within a sample.
Formula to calculate sample size:

n=4pq/L²

n= sample size
p= approximate prevalence rate of disease
q=1-p
L= Permissible error in the estimation of p

-Singh & Masuku.Sampling techniques & determination of sample size in applied

statistics research.International Journal of Economics, Commerce and
Collection of data in sampling:
Data collection is the process of gathering and measuring information.
types of data:
1.Qualitative data/Quantitative data
2.Primary /Secondary
Methods of collection of data:
Qualitative data Quantitative data

-In-depth interview -Experiments/clinical trials

-Observation methods -Observing and recording

-Focus or group well-defined events

discussion -Taking data from management

information systems

-From research

-Bala seetharaman.Sampling & methods of Data collection in Qualitative Research.

IJCNE.2016;17(2):41-47.
Errors in sampling:

Errors

Sampling error Non sampling error

Coverage

Observational

Processing
Assess response rate:

● Response rate is the number of cases agreeing to take part in

the study from original sample.
● Response rate is important because each non response is
liable to bias the final sample.
Conclusion:

● In a research or study Clearly defining sample with high

representativeness, employing the right sampling technique in
some respects can help to reduce the bias in the study.
● And generating appropriate sample size, will result in a more
meaningful study whose results and interpretation will eventually
receive a high precision and priority for publication.
● So it is important for a investigator to select correct sampling
technique, sample size,collection of data to obtain better results.
References
-Hamed Taherdoost.Sampling Methods in Research Methodology;
How to Choose a Sampling Technique for Research.2016; 5(2):18-27.

-Soben peter.Essentials of Preventive and Community Dentistry.4th

edition.Arya Publishers;2009.

-K.Park.Park’s Textbook of Preventive and Social Medicine.17th

ed.Banarsidas Bhanot; 2002.
References:
-William R.Proffit, Henry W.Fields,JR.Contemporary Orthodontics.3rd
ed.Mosby, 2001.

-Ilker Etikan, Kabiru Bala.Sampling and sampling methods.Biometrics

& Biostatistics International Journal. 2017; 5(6):215-217.
References:
-Singh & Masuku.Sampling techniques & determination of sample size in
applied statistics research.International Journal of Economics, Commerce and
Management.2014;2(11):1-21.

-Tak M, Nagarajappa R, Sharda AJ, Asawa K, Tak A. Prevalence of

malocclusion and orthodontic treatment needs among 12 - 15 years old
school children of Udaipur, India. Eur J Dent 2013;7: 45–53.

-Bala seetharaman.Sampling & methods of Data collection in Qualitative

Research. IJCNE.2016;17(2):41-47.
References
Example:

Comparison of AdvanSync and intermaxillary elastics in the correction of Class II

malocclusions: A retrospective clinical study

Sample:

Lateral cephalograms of patients taken before and after comprehensive

orthodontic treatment and comparison group was generated from historical data
bases and matched to the experimental groups for skeletal age, sex, and
craniofacial morphology.

-Jayachandran S et al. Comparison of AdvanSync and intermaxillary elastics in the correction of

Class II malocclusions: A retrospective clinical study. American Journal of Orthodontics and
Dentofacial Orthopedics.2016; 150(6): 979–988.