BASIC CONCEPT OF VIBRATING SYSTEM

LESSON NO. 1:
 BRIEF HISTORY OF THE STUDY OF VIBRATION

 The vibration was first known during

the discovery of the musical
instruments such as whistles, drums,
guitar etc... At first, it was only known
as something related to sound with no
mathematical relation, but, with the
with the help of many scientist and
engineers they have discovered that
vibration is not only related to sound.
BRIEF HISTORY OF THE STUDY OF
VIBRATION
 When Galileo (1564 - 1642) studied the
oscillation of strings and simple
pendulum, he discovered a
mathematical relationship between the
pendulum and its frequency and the
term resonance. After Galileo, it was
then followed by the likes of Sir Isaac
Newtown (1642-1727), Daniel
Bernoulli (1700-1782), L. Euler (1707-
1783), and so many more scientist and
engineers up to the present day of
vibration engineering.
 BASIC CONCEPT OF VIBRATING SYSTEM

 Any motion that repeats itself after an

interval of time is called vibration or
oscillation.
 The swinging of a pendulum and the
motion of a plucked string are typical
examples of vibration.
 The theory of vibration deals with the
study of oscillatory motions of bodies
and the forces associated with them.
ELEMENTARY PARTS OF VIBRATING SYSTEMS

 A vibratory system, in general,

includes a means for storing
potential energy (spring or
elasticity), a means for storing
kinetic energy (mass or inertia),
and a means by which energy is
gradually lost (damper).
 NUMBER OF DEGREES OF FREEDOM

 The minimum number of

independent coordinates required
to determine completely the
positions of all parts of a system
at any instant of time defines the
number of degrees of freedom of
the system.
 NUMBER OF DEGREES OF FREEDOM

 Single Degree of Freedom

Systems
 are the simplest systems as they require
only one independent coordinate to
describe their configuration
 NUMBER OF DEGREES OF FREEDOM

 Two Degree of Freedom Systems 

 is one that requires two coordinates to
completely describe its equation of
motion. These coordinates are called
generalized coordinates when they are
independent of each other. 
 EQUIVALENT SYSTEMS
 Systems of equations that have the same solution are called equivalent systems.
Two systems of linear equations are equivalent if and only if they have the same
set of solutions. In other words, two systems are equivalent if and only if every
solution of one of them is also a solution of the other.
 In many applications the motion of a certain point of the system is of primary
concern, and a single type of motion is dominant. For such cases certain
simplifications may be made that allow us to approximate a higher degree of
freedom system by a lower degree of freedom system, say a single degree of
freedom system.
 EXTENSION/CONTRACTION OF ELASTIC RODS

 Elastic rods possess an infinite number

of degrees of freedom. Nevertheless, if
the mass of the rod is small compared
with other masses to which it is
attached, and if we are interested only
in the motion of a single point, say the
unsupported end, the elastic rod may be
modeled as an equivalent elastic spring
as discussed below.
 EXTENSION/CONTRACTION OF
ELASTIC RODS
 Consider a uniform elastic rod of length L, cross-sectional area A, and
elastic modulus E. Let x correspond to the axial coordinate, and let the
rod be fixed at the end x = 0 as shown in Figure 1.6. Further, let the rod
be subjected to a tensile force of magnitude F0 applied at the end x = L,
as indicated. If u(x) corresponds to the axial displacement of the cross
section originally located at x then, for small axial strains ε (x), the strain
and displacement are related by
EXTENSION/CONTRACTION OF ELASTIC RODS

Where:
 The constitutive relation for an elastic rod in uniaxial tension/compression is
σ = Axial Stress

 the resultant membrane force, N(x), acting over the cross section at x is given b

Where:
 Consideration of the equilibrium of a differential volume element of the rod yields its
n (x) = Distributed axial load
governing equation as
 EXTENSION/CONTRACTION OF ELASTIC RODS

 For the present problem n(x) = 0, and the boundary conditions for the rod of Figure 1.6 are stated
mathematically as

 Integrating Eq. (1.4), with n(x) = 0, imposing the boundary conditions (1.5), and evaluating the resulting
expression at x = L gives the axial deflection of the loaded end, ∆L , as

 Rearranging Eq. (1.6) then gives the relation Where:

 BENDING OF ELASTIC BEAMS
 Continuous systems such as elastic beams have an infinite number of
degrees of freedom. Yet, under appropriate circumstances (loading type,
kinematical constraints, mass ratios, etc.) a certain type of motion may be
dominant.
 THE CANTILEVER BEAM
Consider a uniform elastic beam of length L, cross-sectional area moment
of inertia I and elastic modulus E that is supported as shown in Figure 1.7a.
Let the beam be subjected to a transverse point load of magnitude P0
applied on its free end, and let ∆L correspond to the deflection of that point
as indicated.
 THE CANTILEVER BEAM
 Relation between the applied load and the load point deflection of the form
Where:
K = equivalent stiffness

 To find k, let us consider the static deflection of the beam due to the applied point
load. If w(x) corresponds to the deflection of the centerline of the beam at the axial
coordinate x, then we know from elementary beam theory that the governing equation
for the transverse motion of an elastic beam subjected to a distributed transverse load
of intensity q(x) is of the form Where:
q(x) = distributed transverse
load of intensity
 THE CANTILEVER BEAM
 Where q(x) = 0 for the case under consideration. The boundary conditions for a beam that is clamped
at the origin and loaded by a point load at its free end are

 Integrating Eq. (1.10) with q(x) = 0, imposing the boundary conditions of Eq. (1.11) and evaluating the
resulting solution at x = L gives the load point deflection

 Solving Eq. (1.12) for P0 gives the relation Where:

 SIDE-SWAY OF STRUCTURES

 Consider a structure consisting of four identical elastic columns

supporting an effectively rigid roof of mass m, as shown in Figure 1.8a.
Let the columns, each of length L and bending stiffness EI, be embedded
in a rigid foundation as indicated. Further, let the mass of the roof be
much larger than the mass of the columns. We shall consider two types of
connections of the columns with the roof, pinned and clamped/embedded.
 SIDE-SWAY OF STRUCTURES
 Pinned Connections
 If we are interested in side-sway motion of the structure as may occur during
earthquakes, and if the mass of the columns is negligible compared with the
mass of the roof, then the columns may be treated as cantilever beams as
discussed earlier. For this purpose, the structure may be modeled as four
equivalent springs, each of stiffness k as given by Eq. (1.14) and shown in
Figure 1.8b. This, in turn, is equivalent to a mass attached to a single
effective spring of stiffness (keff) (see Section 1.3), given by
Where:
 SIDE-SWAY OF STRUCTURES
Clamped Connections
 If the columns are embedded (framed) into the roof structure, as shown in
Figure 1.9a), the deflections differ from those for the pinned case. One
way to determine the equivalent stiffness of a beam that is clamped-fixed
at one end and clamped-free at the other is to solve Eq. (1.10) with q(x) =
0 subject to the boundary conditions
 SIDE-SWAY OF STRUCTURES
 In lieu of the boundary conditions of Eq. (1.11). It may be seen that only the last
condition differs from the previous case. Since, by definition, the curvature and hence
the bending moment vanishes at an inflection point such a point is equivalent to a pin
joint. Thus, each of the columns for the structure under consideration may be viewed
as two cantilever beams of length L/2 that are connected by a pin at the center of the
span. The total deflection of the roof will then be twice that of the inflection point, as
indicated. Therefore, letting and in Eq. (1.13) gives, for a single
clamped-fixed/clamped-free column, that
 SIDE-SWAY OF STRUCTURES
 As for the pinned roof structure considered earlier, the four equivalent springs for the
present structure act in parallel (see Section 1.3) and are thus equivalent to a single
effective spring of stiffness

 Note that since, for this case, the columns are embedded in the roof and hence provide
greater resistance to bending and therefore to lateral translation of the roof than for the
pinned case, the effective stiffness is higher (by a factor of 4) than the stiffness for the
pinned case.
 THE SIMPLY SUPPORTED BEAM
 We next construct an equivalent single degree of freedom system for a simply
supported beam subjected to a transverse point load applied at the midpoint of the
span. The equivalent stiffness of this structure can, of course, be found by solving Eq.
(1.10) subject to the appropriate boundary conditions.

 However, we shall use the equivalent stiffness of the cantilever beam, Eq. (1.14), as a
shortcut to establish the equivalent stiffness of the present structure, as was done
earlier for the modeling of side-sway of a single story building.
 THE SIMPLY SUPPORTED BEAM
 Consideration of the differential beam element on the interval − ≤≤ dx x dx 2 2
(Figure 1.11b) shows that the problem is equivalent to that of half of the structure on
0 ≤ ≤ x L subjected to a transverse point load of magnitude P0 acting at the edge x = 0
(Figure 1.11c). Next, let ∆0 correspond to the deflection of the cantilever beam under
the point load P0. It may be seen that ∆0 also corresponds to the center-span
deflection of the beam of Figure 1.11a. It then follows from Eq. (1.12) that

 and hence that Where:

 COMPOUND SYSTEMS

 In many applications a beam may be attached to another structure, or to

compliant supports. The effect of the second structure, or the compliance
of the supports, may often be represented as a linear elastic spring, in the
manner discussed throughout this section. As before, and under similar
circumstances, we may be interested in representing the primary beam as
an equivalent linear spring, and ultimately the combined structure of the
beam and spring as a single equivalent spring. We shall do this for two
related cases as examples.
 COMPOUND SYSTEMS
 Simply Supported Beam Attached to a Fixed Spring
 Since we are interested in the vertical motion of the center-span of the beam we may
model the beam as an equivalent linear spring. It follows that the effective vent by Eq.
(1.22). The Figure 1.12 Compound system of elastic beam and spring: (a) fixed
spring, (b) loaded spring. the spring is free to translate and a point load is applied to
that edge (Figure 1.12b). Simply Supported Beam Attached to a Fixed Spring
stiffness, kbeam, of the equivalent spring for the beam is gi stiffness of the compound
system consisting of the two springs may then be obtained by superposition, as shown
in Figure 1.13.
 COMPOUND SYSTEMS

 For this case, the springs are seen to act

in parallel and thus to act as a single
equivalent spring whose stiffness, keq,
is the sum of the stiff nesses of the two
parallel springs (see Section 1.3). We
therefore have that
 COMPOUND SYSTEMS
 Simply Supported Beam Attached to a Loaded Spring
 Let us again consider a sim attached to a linear spring of stiffness ks load is applied to
the free edge of the spring (Figure 1.1 n, if we are only interested in the motion of the
point of the b the point load (the center an of the beam), we may model the beam as
an equivalent linear spring as we 4, it may be seen that the two springs act in series
and hence that the effect of the two springs is equivalent to that of a single equivalent
spring. As shown in Section impound system of rated Beam Attached to a Loaded
Spring ply supported elastic beam . In this case, however, a point 2b).
 COMPOUND SYSTEMS

 Once again exam that lies directly over

spring did for the previous case. Using
superposition, as shown in Figure 1.1
1.3, the stiffness of the equivalent
spring representing the c the two
springs in series is given by
 SPRINGS CONNECTED IN PARALLEL AND IN
SERIES

 When viewed collectively, a system of linear springs behaves as a single

equivalent linear spring.
 There are two fundamental ways in which linear elastic springs may be
connected: (a) in parallel (Figure 1.27a), and (b) in series (Figure 1.27b).
Other arrangements correspond to combinations of these two
fundamental configurations.
 SPRINGS IN PARALLEL
 Consider a rigid plate attached to a number of elastic springs with one end connected
to a rigid wall as shown in Figure 1.27a. Each spring exerts a restoring force of the
form Fj = kj Δ (j = 1, 2, ..., N) acting on the plate, as shown in the free-body diagram
in Figure 1.28a. The total restoring force is then the sum of the individual restoring
forces.

 Where
 SPRINGS IN SERIES
 Consider a system of N springs connected end to end (i.e., in series). Let one end of
spring number 1 be attached to a rigid wall as shown in Figure 1.27b, and an external
force P be applied to the free end of that spring. In addition, let an external force P be
applied to the free end of spring number N. Further, let kj (j = 1, 2, …, N) correspond
to the stiffness of spring number j, and let ∆j represent the “stretch” (the relative
displacement between the two ends) in that spring. The displacement Δ* also
represents the total stretch in the system, or the stretch of an equivalent spring with
effective stiffness keff.
Where:
keff. = Effective Stiffness
Δ* = Displacement
 SPRINGS IN SERIES
 Isolate each spring in the system and indicate the forces that act on them as shown in
Figure 1.29. It then follows from Newton’s Third Law applied at each joint, and the
implicit assumption that the springs are massless, that

 Dividing through by the stiffness of each individual spring then gives the relations
 SPRINGS IN SERIES

 The deflection of the load is equal to the total stretch in the system - that is, the sum
of the individual stretches plus their weights and angles.

 Substitution of each of Eq. (1.47) into Eq. (1.48) gives the relation
 SPRINGS IN SERIES

 Where:

 Equation (1.51) gives the relation between the effective stiffness of the single
equivalent spring and the stiffness of the springs that comprise the system.
 DAMPING ELEMENTS

 Vibration damping is a term that’s used in industrial, electronic and ergonomic

applications when there is a need to reduce the amount of energy that’s produced by
the system. Normally engineers try to address and reduce this energy at its source so
the disturbing force is not at or near a natural frequency. This will ensure
that resonance does not occur. Sometimes this is not possible for many reasons so
problems will usually be controlled with a vibration damper. Usually when a good
vibration damper is added, the energy that is left over is removed and converted to a
small amount of heat which is referred to as the “swallowed energy”.
DAMPED HARMONIC OSCILLATOR
 DAMPING ELEMENTS
 In many practical systems, the vibrational energy is gradually converted to heat or
sound. Due to the reduction in the energy, the response, such as the displacement of
the system, gradually decreases. The mechanism by which the vibrational energy is
gradually converted into heat or sound is known as damping. Although the amount of
energy converted into heat or sound is relatively small, the consideration of damping
becomes important for an accurate prediction of the vibration response of a system.
 DAMPING ELEMENTS
 A damper is assumed to have neither mass nor elasticity, and damping force exists
only if there is relative velocity between the two ends of the damper. It is difficult to
determine the causes of damping in practical systems. Hence damping is modeled as
one or more of the following types.

Viscous Damper
 TYPES OF DAMPING:
Viscous Damping
 is the most commonly used damping
mechanism in vibration analysis. When
mechanical systems vibrate in a fluid
medium such as air, gas, water, or oil, the
resistance offered by the fluid to the moving
body causes energy to be dissipated. In this
case, the amount of dissipated energy
depends on many factors, such as the size
and shape of the vibrating body, the viscosity
of the fluid, the frequency of vibration, and Viscous Damper
the velocity of the vibrating body.
 TYPES OF DAMPING:
 Coulomb or Dry-Friction
Damping
 Here the damping force is constant in
magnitude but opposite in direction to
that of the motion of the vibrating body.
It is caused by friction between rubbing
surfaces that either are dry or have
insufficient lubrication.
 TYPES OF DAMPING:
 Material or Solid or Hysteretic
Damping
 When a body having material damping
is subjected to vibration, the stress-
strain diagram shows a hysteresis loop
as indicated in Fig. 1.40(a). The area of
this loop denotes the energy lost per
unit volume of the body per cycle due
to damping.3
 CONSTRUCTION OF VISCOUS DAMPERS

 Viscous dampers can be constructed in several ways. For instance, when a plate
moves relative to another parallel plate with a viscous fluid in between the plates, a
viscous damper can be obtained. The following examples illustrate the various
methods of constructing viscous dampers used in different applications.
DAMPING CONSTANT OF PARALLEL PLATES SEPARATED
BY VISCOUS FLUID (EXAMPLE 1.1)

 Consider two parallel plates separated by a distance h, with a fluid of viscosity

between the plates. Derive an expression for the damping constant when one plate
moves with a velocity v relative to the other as shown in Fig. 1.41.
 Solution: Let one plate be fixed and let the other plate be moved with a velocity v
in its own plane. The fluid layers in contact with the moving plate move with a
velocity v, while those in contact with the fixed plate do not move. The velocities
of intermediate fluid layers are assumed to vary linearly between 0 and v, as
shown in Fig. 1.41.
DAMPING CONSTANT OF PARALLEL PLATES SEPARATED
BY VISCOUS FLUID

 According to Newton s law of viscous flow, the shear stress (t) developed in the fluid
layer at a distance y from the fixed plate is given by Where:
t = Shear Stress

 where du/dy = v/h is the velocity gradient. The shear or resisting force (F) developed
at the bottom surface of the moving plate is
Where:
F = Shear Stress
DAMPING CONSTANT OF PARALLEL PLATES SEPARATED
BY VISCOUS FLUID

 Where A is the surface area of the moving plate. By expressing F as:

 The damping constant c can be found as:

 DAMPING CONSTANT OF A JOURNAL
BEARING

 A journal bearing is used to provide lateral support to a rotating shaft as

shown in Fig. 1.43. If the radius of the shaft is R, angular velocity of the
shaft is radial clearance between the shaft and the bearing is d, viscosity
of the fluid (lubricant) is and the length of the bearing is l, derive an
expression for the rotational damping constant of the journal bearing.
 DAMPING CONSTANT OF A JOURNAL
BEARING
 The shearing stress in the lubricant is given by the product of the radial velocity
gradient and the viscosity of the lubricant:

 The force required to shear the fluid film is equal to stress times the area. The torque
on the shaft (T) is equal to the force times the lever arm, so that
Where:
T = Torque on the shaft
 DAMPING CONSTANT OF A JOURNAL
BEARING
 Where A = 2pR is the surface area of the shaft exposed to the lubricant. Thus Eq.
(E.3) can be rewritten as

 From the definition of the rotational damping constant of the bearing :

 We obtain the desired expression for the rotational damping constant as

REFERENCES
 Kelly, G., 2012. Mechanical Vibrations: Theory and Applications, SI. USA: Cengage
Learning.

 Bottega, W., 2006. Engineering Vibrations. USA: Taylor & Francis Group.

 Singh, V., n.d. Mechanical Vibrations (Mechanical Engineering: A Modern

Approach). Chandigarh, India: Dhanpat Rai & Co. (P) LTD.

 NA, N., n.d. Fundamentals of Vibrations. [online] Unife.it. Available at:

<http://www.unife.it/ing/lm.meccanica/insegnamenti/meccanica-delle-vibrazioni/
materiale-didattico/copy_of_a-a-2016-17-dispense-e-programma/03-rao_cap1-
fundamentals-of-vibration.pdf> [Accessed 5 November 2021].
END OF PRESENTATION