WELDING-Welding is defined by the American welding Society (AWS) as

“a materials joining process used in making welds”. A weld is defined as “a

localized coalescence (the growing together of the grain structure of the
materials being welded) of metals or non-metals produced either by heating
the materials to suitable temperatures, with or without application of
pressure and with or without the use of filler metal”.

Advantages of Welding-
-A good weld is as strong as the base metal.
-General welding equipment is not very costly.
- Portable welding equipments are available.
-Welding permits considerable freedom in design.
-Welding can be mechanized.
Disadvantages of Welding-
 Welding gives harmful radiations (light), fumes and spatter.

 Welding results in residual stresses and distortion of the work

pieces.
 Welding heat produces metallurgical changes.

 Welding joint requires stress-relief heat treatment.

Applications of Welding-
-Aircraft Construction
-Automobile construction
-Bridges
-Buildings
-Pressure Vessels and Tanks
-Storage Tanks
-Pipelines.
-Ships
-Household and office furniture
-Machine tool frames and cutting dies etc.
Overview on Joining Processes
Welding Positions
 Flat Position - In this position, the filler metal is deposited from the
upper side of the joint and the face of the weld is horizontal.
 Horizontal Position - In this position, the filler metal is deposited upon
a horizontal surface and the axis of the weld is horizontal.
 Vertical Position - In this position, the filler metal is deposited upon a
vertical surface and the axis of the weld is vertical.
 Overhead Position - In this position, the filler metal is deposited from
the under side of the joint and the face of the weld is horizontal.
Welding Joints

 Butt Joint – Parts lying in same plane are joined at their edges.
 Lap Joint – Two parts are overlapping each other.
 Tee Joint – One part is perpendicular to the other to resemble letter T.
 Corner Joint – Parts are joined at corner.
Adhesive bonding
 Uses forces of attachment between a filler material and two closely-
spaced surfaces to bond the parts
 Filler material in adhesive bonding is not metallic
 Joining process can be carried out at room temperature or only modestly
above
 Joining process in which a filler material is used to hold two (or more)
closely-spaced parts together by surface attachment
 Used in a wide range of bonding and sealing applications for joining
similar and dissimilar materials such as metals, plastics, ceramics, wood,
paper, and cardboard
 Considered a growth area because of opportunities for increased
applications.
Adhesive Bonding - Terminology
 Adhesive = filler material, non-metallic, usually a polymer
 Adherends = parts being joined
 Structural adhesives – of greatest interest in engineering,
capable of forming strong, permanent joints between strong,
rigid adherends
Curing in adhesive bonding
 Process by which physical properties of the adhesive are
changed from liquid to solid, usually by chemical
reaction, to accomplish surface attachment of parts
 Curing often aided by heat and/or a catalyst
 If heat used, temperatures are relatively low
 Curing takes time - a disadvantage in production
 Pressure sometimes applied between parts to activate
bonding process
Adhesive Bonding - Joint Strength
 Depends on strength of:
 Adhesive
 Attachment between adhesive and adherends
 Attachment mechanisms:
 Chemical bonding – adhesive and adherend form primary
bond on curing
 Physical interactions - secondary bonding forces between
surface atoms
 Mechanical interlocking - roughness of adherend causes
adhesive to become entangled in surface asperities
Adhesive Bonding - Joint Design
 Adhesive joints are not as strong as welded, brazed, or
soldered joints
 Joint contact area should be maximized
 Adhesive joints are strongest in shear and tension
 Joints should be designed so applied stresses
 are of these types
 Adhesive bonded joints are weakest in cleavage
 or peeling
 Joints should be designed to avoid these types
 of stresses
Types of Stresses in Adhesive
Bonding
Joint Designs in Adhesive Bonding
Adhesive Types-
• Natural adhesives - derived from natural sources, including
gums, starch, dextrin, soya flour, collagen
• Low-stress applications: cardboard cartons, furniture,
bookbinding, plywood
• Inorganic - based principally on sodium silicate and
magnesium oxychloride
• Low cost, low strength
• Synthetic adhesives - various thermoplastic and
• thermosetting polymers
o Most important category in manufacturing
o Synthetic adhesives cured by various mechanisms:
o Mixing catalyst or reactive ingredient with polymer prior to
applying
o Heating to initiate chemical reaction
o Radiation curing, such as UV light
o Curing by evaporation of water
o Application as films or pressure-sensitive coatings on surface
of adherend
 Surface Preparation -
 For adhesive bonding to succeed, part
surfaces must be extremely clean
 Bond strength depends on degree of adhesion between adhesive
and adherend, and this depends on cleanliness of surface
 For metals, solvent wiping often used for cleaning, and
abrading surface by sandblasting improves adhesion
 For non-metallic parts, surfaces are sometimes mechanically
abraded or chemically etched to increase roughness
 Application Methods -

 Manual brushing and rolling

 Silk screening
 Flowing, using manually operated dispensers
 Spraying
 Automatic applicators
 Roll coating
Adhesive is dispensed
by a manually
controlled dispenser
to bond parts during
assembly
Advantages of Adhesive Bonding

o Applicable to a wide variety of materials

o Bonding occurs over entire surface area of joint
o Low temperature curing avoids damage to parts being joined
o Sealing as well as bonding
o Joint design is often simplified, e.g., two flat surfaces can be joined
without providing special part features such as screw holes
 Limitations of Adhesive Bonding
 Joints generally not as strong as other joining methods
 Adhesive must be compatible with materials being joined.
 Service temperatures are limited.
 Cleanliness and surface preparation prior to application of
adhesive are important
 Curing times can limit production rates
 Inspection of bonded joint is difficult
Applications of Adhesives-
o Automotive, aircraft, building products, shipbuilding
o Packaging industries
o Footwear
o Furniture
o Bookbinding
o Electrical and electronics
 Mechanical Fastening-
 A mechanical fastener is a device that is used
to mechanically join (or fasten or affixes) two or more objects
together. In general, fasteners are used to create non-permanent
joints; that is, joints that can be removed or dismantled without
damaging the joining components.
 In most cases, discrete hardware components, called fasteners, are
added to the parts during assembly
 In other cases, fastening involves shaping or reshaping of a and no
separate fasteners are required.
Why Use Mechanical Assembly?
 Low cost
 Ease of manufacturing
 Easy in creating design
 Ease of assembly – can be accomplished with
relatively ease by unskilled workers
 Minimum of special tooling required
 In a relatively short time
 Ease of disassembly – at least for the methods that
permit disassembly
1. Methods that allow for disassembly
 Example: threaded fasteners
2. Methods that create a permanent joint
 Example: rivets
-Screws, Bolts, and Nuts
Screw - externally threaded fastener generally assembled into a blind
threaded hole.

Bolt - externally threaded fastener inserted into through holes and

"screwed" into a nut on the opposite side.

Nut - internally threaded fastener having standard threads that match

those on the bolts of same diameter, pitch and thread form
Washer-
Hardware component often used with threaded fasteners to
ensure tightness of the mechanical joint
 Simplest form = flat thin ring of sheet metal

 Functions:

-Distribute stresses
-Provide support for large clearance holes
- Protect part surfaces and seal the joint
Figure Types of washers: (a) plain (flat) washers; (b) spring
washers, used to dampen vibration or compensate for wear; and
(c) lock washer designed to resist loosening of the bolt or scre
RIVETS-
 Unthreaded, headed pin used to join two or more parts by
passing pin through holes in parts and forming a second head
in the pin on the opposite side.
 Widely used fasteners for achieving a permanent
mechanically fastened joint.
 Clearance hole into which rivet is inserted must be close to the
diameter of rivets.
Figure 33.10 Five basic rivet types, also shown in assembled
configuration: (a) solid, (b) tubular, (c) semi-tubular, (d) bifurcated,e)
Compression
Applications and Advantages of Rivets
 Used primarily for lap joints
 A primary fastening method in aircraft and aerospace

industries
Advantages:
 High production rates

 Simplicity

 Dependability

 Low cost
Stitching-
 The process of metal stitching or stapling is much like that of
ordinary stapling of papers.
 This operation is fast & it is particularly suitable for joining
thin metallic and non metallic materials.
 Ex. Stapling of cardboard container
Seaming-
 Seaming is based on the simple principle of folding of two
thin pieces of material together.
 It is a process much like the joining of two pieces of paper
(when a paper by folding them at a corner).
 Ex.tops of beverage cans, in containers for foods and house
hold products.
Crimping-
 Crimping is joining two or more pieces of metal or other
ductile material by deforming one or both of them to hold the
other. The bend or deformity is called the crimp.
 The crimping method is a method of joining without using
fasteners.
 Ex. Caps are fastened to bottles by crimping, some connectors
to electrical wiring.
Weldability-
Soldering-
 Joining process in which a filler metal with Tm less than or
equal to 450C(840F) is melted and distributed by capillary
action between faying surfaces of metal parts being joined
 No melting of base metals, but filler metal wets and
combines with base metal to form metallurgical bond
 Soldering similar to brazing, and many of the same heating
methods are used
 Filler metal called solder
 Most closely associated with electrical and electronics
assembly (wire soldering)
Filler metal / Solder
 Usually alloys of tin (Sn) and lead (Pb).
 Both metals have low Tm.
 Lead is poisonous and its percentage is minimized in most
solders.
 Tin is chemically active at soldering temperatures and
promotes wetting action for successful joining.
 Silver and antimony also used in soldering alloys.
Functions of Soldering Fluxes
 Be molten at soldering temperatures
 Remove oxide films and tarnish from base part
 surfaces
 Prevent oxidation during heating
 Promote wetting of faying surfaces
 Be readily displaced by molten solder during process
 Leave residue that is non-corrosive and nonconductive
Mechanical Means to Secure Joint

Figure 32.8Techniques for securing the joint by mechanical means

prior to soldering in electrical connections: (a) crimped lead wire on
PC board; (b) plated through-hole on PC board to maximize solder
contact surface; (c) hooked wire on flat terminal; and (d) twisted
wires.
Soldering Advantages / Disadvantages
Advantages:
 Lower energy than brazing or fusion welding

 Variety of heating methods available

 Good electrical and thermal conductivity in joint

 Easy repair and rework

Disadvantages:
 Low joint strength unless reinforced by mechanically means

 Possible weakening or melting of joint in elevated

temperature service
Applications-
 Soldering is commonly used in, electronics, heating, air
conditioning, mechanical, fire sprinkler and other similar
systems as well as radiator manufacturing, repair and sheet
metal work. It is also used in jewellery and stained glass work
Brazing
 Joining process in which a filler metal is melted and distributed by capillary action
between faying surfaces of metal parts being joined
 No melting of base metals occurs
 Only the filler melts
 Filler metal Tm greater than 450C (840 F) but less than Tm of base metal(s) to be
joined
 Strength of Brazed Joint
Strength of Brazed Joint-
 If joint is properly designed and brazing operation is properly performed,
solidified joint will be stronger than filler metal out of which it was formed
Why?
 Small part clearances used in brazing

 Metallurgical bonding that occurs between base and filler metals

 Geometric constrictions imposed on joint by

 base parts
Some Filler Metals for Brazing
Base metal(s) Filler Metal(s)
Aluminium Aluminium and silicon
Nickel –copper alloy Copper
Copper Copper and Phosphorous
Steel, C.I. Copper and zinc
S.S. Gold and silver
Applying Filler Metal
Brazing Fluxes
 Similar purpose as in welding; they dissolve, combine with,
and otherwise inhibit formation of oxides and other unwanted
by products in brazing process
Characteristics of a good flux include:
 Low melting temperature

 Low viscosity so it can be displaced by filler metal

 Facilitates wetting

 Protects joint until solidification of filler metal

Heating Methods in Brazing
 Torch Brazing - torch directs flame against work in
vicinity of joint
 Furnace Brazing - furnace supplies heat
 Induction Brazing – heating by electrical resistance to

high-frequency current in work

 Resistance Brazing - heating by electrical resistance in

parts
 Dip Brazing - molten salt or molten metal bath
 Infrared Brazing - uses high-intensity infrared
 lamp
Advantages and limitations-
 Any metals can be joined, including dissimilar metals
 Can be performed quickly and consistently, permitting high production rates
 Multiple joints can be brazed simultaneously
 Less heat and power required than FW
 Problems with HAZ in base metal are reduced
 Joint areas that are inaccessible by many welding processes can be brazed;
capillary action draws molten filler metal into joint

o Joint strength is generally less than a welded joint

o Joint strength is likely to be less than the base metals
o High service temperatures may weaken a brazed joint
o Colour of brazing metal may not match colour of base metal parts, a
possible aesthetic disadvantage
Applications -
 Automotive (e.g., joining tubes and pipes)
 Electrical equipment (e.g., joining wires and cables)
 Cutting tools (e.g., brazing cemented carbide inserts to shanks)
 Jewellery
 Chemical process industry
 Plumbing and heating contractors join metal pipes and tubes by
brazing
 Repair and maintenance work
Radiant Energy Welding Processes
 These type are also called ‘newer’ since these are not in used
for many years and have been developed very recently. The
types are

 Electron beam welding

 Laser beam welding

Electron beam welding
 Electron beam welding is a process in which the heat is generated when
the electron beam impinges on work piece. As the high velocity electron
beam strikes the surfaces to be welded, their kinetic energy changes to
thermal energy and hence causes the work piece metal to melt and fuse.
 The beam is created in a high vacuum (10-3 to 10-5 mm of hg )
 Thisprocess employs an electron gun in which the cathode in form of
hot filament of tungsten or tantalum is the source of a stream of electrons.
 The electrons emitted from filament accelerated to a high velocity to the
anode because of the large potential difference that exists between them.
 The electron beam is focused by a magnetic lens system on the work piece
to be welded.
 The depth of penetration of the weld depends on the electron speed
which in turn is dependent upon the accelerating voltage.
 When the high velocity electron beam strikes the work-piece
all the kinetic energy is converted to heat.
 As these electrons penetrate the metal, the material that is directly in
the path is melted which when solidifies form the joint.
Advantages-
 The penetration of the beam is high.

 The process can be used at higher welding speeds typically between 125

 and 200 mm/sec.

 No filler metal or flux needs to be used in this process.

 The heat liberated is in a narrow zone, thus the heat affected zone is

 minimal as well as weld distortions are virtually eliminated.

 It can weld or cut any metal or ceramic, diamond, sometimes as thick as

150 mm.
Disadvantages-
 High operating cost
 Expensive equipment

 Work size is limited by the size of the chamber

Applications-
 Automobile, aeroplane, aerospace, farm and other type of
equipment are being welded by the electron beam process.
 Laser Beam Welding
 Laser is a abbreviation of light amplification by stimulated
emission of radiation.

 The laser beam welding process is the focusing of a

monochromatic light into extremely concentrated beams.

 It employs a carefully focused beam of light that concentrates

tremendous amount of energy on a small area to produce
fusion.

 The laser beam welding consist of electrical storage unit,

capacitor tank , triggering device , flash tube wrapped with a
wire , focusing lens mechanism and work table.
 When capacitor bank is triggered, energy is injected into the wire
that surrounds the flash tube.

 The flash tube or lamp are designed for the operation at a rate of
thousand of flashes per second.

 The lamp become a efficient device for converting electrical energy

into light energy, the process of pumping the laser. The laser is then
activated.
 The beam is emitted through the coated end of the lasing material.

 The beam goes through a focusing device where it is pin-pointed

on the work piece. Fusion takes place and the weld is accomplished.
Advantages-
 Disadvantages-
 High energy losses.
 Highly skilled operation.
 High equipment cost.
 Eye protection required.

Applications-

 The laser beam welding is dominant in the automotive industry. It is used

in the area where large volume production is required.
 It is employed for high precision welds. As it does not use any electrode,
the final weld will be light but strong.
 The laser welding is also frequently used in making of jewellery.
 However, laser beam welding is used in medical industries to hold metals
together on a small scale.
Welding Defects-
 Porosity and blow holes
 Slag inclusion
 Incomplete fusion and penetration
 Cracks
 Distortion
 Spatter
 Poor weld bead appearance
 Overlapping