What is an echo?

speaker listener

speakers echo

listeners
echo
 Voice Activity Detection

Active Mode
Signal Level

„active“-
Threshold

Low level- Threshold

Time
Delay Times (ITU G.114)

One-way delay time Description

0 -150 msec for realtime-sensitive
applications

acceptable, but reduced

150-400 msec quality due to some
interference
> 400 msec not acceptable for most
voice applications
Demands on speech quality
(ITU-T G.114)
%
8
7 Not acceptable
speech quality
6
Packet Loss

5
4
Excellent Acceptable
3 speech speech
2 quality quality
1

100 200 300 400 500 ms

Delay
 Signal Delay for some
applications

Application Signal Delay

Mobile Telephony 60 msec
VoIP 50 – 150 msec
Satellite 250 – 300 msec
VoIP over Satellite 300 msec
 Effects of Delay

Situation ...occurs... Effect

Reflection of the signal Delay Echo

on listeners side > 50 msec
Delayed transmission Delay Communication partners
> 250 msec start talking at the same
time
Classification of Delay
Accumulation Delay
 Sampling Time for Codecs

Processing Delay
 Coding Algorithm
 Packaging Time

Network Delay
 Propagation Delay
 Switching/Routing Delay
 Jitter Buffering Time
 Jitter Buffer
Sender
1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Network Delay
+ Jitter

Ingress 1 2 3 5* 4 6 7
Receiver
(with Jitter Buffer)

Egress 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Packet Loss

Recovery of original sequence using the RTP-timestamp

*
 Reasons for Packet Loss
 bit errors (recognised by FCS – Layer 2)
 buffer overflow (reason: network overload)
 delay times too high (data on egress side doesn´t
arrive in time)
 Measures to reduce the
effects of packet loss

 do nothing
 Comfort noise generation (for large gaps)
 Repetition: Forwarding of last received packet
 Redundancy: each packet carries the information of the
previous (compressed or uncompressed)
 IntServ – Applications and
Services

Application Service Guarantees Example

Class
Real Time Guaranteed Bandwidth and Video conference,
Intolerant (RTI) maximum delay speech
Real Time Controlled Average Delay Video applications
Tolerant (RTT) Load
Elastic - No packet loss TCP traffic
 Resource Reservation
Protocol (RSVP)
 Layer 3 control protocol
 provides reservation of bandwidth (resp. buffer
capacity) on a router
 unidirectional
 receiver-controlled
 RSVP - Functionality I
RESV Message Sender
Data QoS
RESV...Reservation Request

Node *
QoS

Node * Node
QoS QoS

Receiver Receiver Receiver

* Multicast messages will be aggregated by the node

 RSVP - Functionality II
Host Router
Is the user allowed
to do resource
reservation ?
Applica RSVP RSVP RSVP
tion
Process Process
Policy Routing Policy
Control Process Control

data Admis Admis

traffic control

Contrl Control
Class- Packet Class- Packet
ifier data ifier
scheduler scheduler
Enough
resources
available?
 PATH- Message

 IP-routed from sender to all receivers

 each passed router stores the PATH STATUS
- IP-address of previous node
- expected user data stream
RSVP - PATH and RESV Message
PATH Message 192.168.2.1
Sender QoS
RESV Message
User Data 1 2 3

192.168.2.2
192.168.2.1 QoS

192.168.2.3
192.168.2.2 QoS

192.168.2.4
192.168.2.3 Recv
RSVP – Soft State-Principle I
 path status and reservation status is stored
within the router dynamically
 periodical request
 after a timeout (e.g. router failure):
PATH Tear and RESV Tear Messages are sent
 resources are released
 new routing initiated with PATH messages
RSVP - Soft State-Principle II
192.168.2.1
PATH Message
Sender QoS
RESV Message
User Data

192.168.2.2
192.168.2.1 QoS

192.168.2.6 192.168.2.3
QoS 192.168.2.2 192.168.2.2 QoS

192.168.2.4
192.168.2.6 Recv.
 DiffServ- Principle
 classification into different service classes
 reservation of resources according to service class
(not fixed in the standards)
 defines Per-Hop-Behavior (PHB)
 uses ToS (Type of Service) field of the IP-header as
DS-Code Point (DSCP) field
 DiffServ – DS field

DSCP CU

DSCP (DiffServ Code Point) - 6 bits

CU (unused) - 2 bits

DS field corresponds to
in IPv4  ToS field
in IPv6  Traffic Class field
 DiffServ - Domain

DS-Domain

Edge Router: Core Router

•classification
•marking
•control
•Service Level Agreement
•Traffic Cond.Agreement

DS-Domain

Edge Router
 DiffServ - Assured Forwarding
 4 PHB-classes: „Olympic Service Model“
(Class 1  „Gold“; Class 2  „Silver“; Class 3  „Bronze“)
 For each class: 3 drop preference levels
Congestion: „low“  low discard probability
„high“ high discard probability)
 Code Points (DSCP):

Drop Prec. Class 1 Class 2 Class 3 Class 4

Low 001 010 010 010 011 010 100 010

Medium 001 100 010 100 011 100 100 100

High (highest 001 110 010 110 011 110 100 110
discard proba)
 What is MPLS?
Multi-Protocol Label Switching:
• specifies mechanisms for managing traffic flows
• remains independent of the L2 and L3 protocols
• provides a means of mapping L3 addresses to simple fixed length labels
• labels are used for switching decisions on L2
• defines specific paths across the network: Label Switched Path - LSP
• an LSP is valid for a certain Forwarding Equivalence Class – FEC
• FEC and LSP enable Quality of Service – QoS
• on Layer 3 supports: IPv6, IPv4, IPX and AppleTalk.
• on Layer 2 supports: Ethernet, Token Ring, FDDI, ATM,
Frame Relay, and Point-to-Point Links.
 MPLS - Domain
Core Router
• Evaluating of label
• Forwarding Table
relabeling, next hop

Edge Router LSR Router

• Classification
• Labeling

Label Switched Path

MPLS-Domain

Label
(4 bytes)
payload IP
 MPLS - Forwarding Table
Core Router
• Evaluating label
• Forwarding Table
relabeling, next hop

Edge Router
• Classification
• Labeling

in out
MPLS-Domain
port 11 label 5 port 3 label 7
port 11 label 2 port 1 label 15
port 1 label 15 port 3 label 7
port 4 label 2 port 6 label 5
... ... ... ...
 MPLS - Attributes
 Classification according to FEC on Ingress Router
(source or destination IP-@, port, content, etc.)
 fixed LSP  minimizes jitter
 Switching (L2) instead of Routing (L3)
 reduces delay
 different pathes for voice and data possible
 bandwidth reservation: RSVP can be used
 MPLS - Example

Bottleneck (congestion!), if
voice and data are transmitted

Router D
3
Router B 3
Voice
5
Router E

3
5 5
5

Router A Data Router C

 MPLS - Operation

Router D pack
et flo
w alon
g LS
Router B P

est Router E
u
req
b el lab
la el
dis
trib
ut i
on
Router A
Router C

Routers A & E are Label Edge Routers – LER

Routers B, C & D are Label Switching Routers - LSR