Wireless Technology

Unit 3: Wireless Metropolitan and Local Area

Networks

Faculty Name : Mrs. Deepali Patil

Module 2: Wide Area Wireless
Networks

Lecture No: 19
IEEE 802.16 (WiMax)
 Wireless networks

• Wireless PANs (Bluetooth – IEEE

802.15)
– very low range
– wireless connection to printers etc

• Wireless LANs (WiFi – IEEE 802.11)

– infrastructure as well as ad-hoc
networks possible
– home/office networking

• Multihop Ad hoc Networks  Wireless MANs (WiMAX-802.16)

– useful when infrastructure not – Similar to cellular networks
available, impractical, or expensive – traditional base station
– military applications, emergencies infrastructure systems

3 3
 Wireless Metropolitan Area Networks (WMAN)

Introduction
 A WMAN is a wireless network intended to provide a signal over an area approximately
the size of a metropolitan area (approximately 50 kilometers or 31 miles).
A WMAN is typically owned by a single entity such as an Internet Service Provider (ISP ),
government entity, or large corporation.
Access to a WMAN is usually restricted to authorized user or subscriber devices.
 WiMAX is the most widely used form of WMAN.
Goal: Provide high-speed Internet access to home and business subscribers, without wires.
 Base stations (BS) can handle thousands of subscriber stations (SS)
 BS can control all data traffic that goes between BS and SS through the allocation of
bandwidth on the radio channel.

4 Lecture 33: WMAN

Sridhar
5
Iyer
IIT Bombay
 WIMAX / IEEE 802.16
 WIMAX stands for Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access as defined by WiMax
Forum
 WiMAX networks refer to broadband wireless networks that are based on the IEEE 802.16
standard, which ensures compatibility and interoperability between broadband wireless
access equipment
 The IEEE 802.16 standards define how wireless traffics move between subscriber
equipment and core networks

Source: SHASHI JAKKU

6
WiMAX

• Goal: Provide high-speed Internet access to home and

business subscribers, without wires.

• Base stations (BS) and subscriber stations (SS)

• Centralized access control to prevents collisions

• Supports applications with different QoS requirements

• WiMAX is a subset of IEEE 802.16 standard

Sridhar Iyer IIT Bombay 7

 WIMAX System: General Features

• Subsystems:
– A WiMAX tower
• similar in concept to a cell-phone tower - A single WiMAX tower can
provide coverage to a very large area as big as ~8,000 square km.
– A WiMAX client terminal
• The terminal receiver and antenna could be a small box or Personal
Computer Memory card, or they could be built into a laptop the
way WiFi access is today
• Range: 50km from base station
• Speed: 70 Megabits per second
• Frequency bands: 2 to 11 and 10 to 66 (licensed and unlicensed bands)
• IEEE 802.16 standards define both MAC and PHY layers and allow multiple
PHY layer specifications

8
 IEEE 802.16

• The IEEE 802.16 standard delivers performance comparable to traditional cable, DSL, or
T1 offerings.
• The principal advantages of systems based on 802.16 are multifold:
 faster provisioning of service, even in areas that are hard for wired infrastructure
to reach;
 lower installation cost; and
 ability to overcome the physical limitations of the traditional wired infrastructure.
• 802.16 technology provides a flexible, cost-effective, standard-based means of filling
gaps in broadband services not envisioned in a wired world.
• For operators and service providers, systems built upon the 802.16 standard represent
an easily deployable “third pipe” capable of delivering flexible and affordable last-mile
broadband access for millions of subscribers in homes and businesses throughout the
world.

9
 Wireless Metropolitan Area Networks (WMAN)
Key Features of IEEE 802.16
 Broadband Wireless Access
 Coverage area up to 50 km.
 Data rate up to 70 Mbps.
 Modulation technique used is BPSK, 64-QAM.
 Offers non-line of site (NLOS) operation.
 1.5 to 28 MHz channel support.
 Hundreds of simultaneous sessions can be carried per channel.
 Delivers >1Mbps data throughput per user.
 Supports both licensed and unlicensed spectrum.
 QoS for voice, video, and T1/E1, continuous and bursty traffic.
 Support Point-to-Multipoint (PMP) and Mesh network models.

10 Lecture 33: WMAN

IEEE 802.16 standards

• 802.16.1 (10-66 GHz, line-of-sight, up to 134Mbit/s)

• 802.16.2 (minimizing interference between coexisting
WMANs)

• 802.16a (2-11 Ghz, Mesh, non-line-of-sight)

• 802.16b (5-6 Ghz)
• 802.16c (detailed system profiles)

• P802.16e (Mobile Wireless MAN)

Sridhar Iyer IIT Bombay 11

 IEEE 802.16 Specifications
• 802.16a
– Uses the licensed frequencies
from 2 to 11 GHz; supports Mesh
network
• 802.16b
– Increase spectrum to 5 and 6 GHz
– Provides QoS( for real time voice
and video service)
• 802.16c
– Spectrum from 10 to 66GHz
• 802.16d (d = a+b+c)
– Improvement and fixes for 802.16a
• 802.16e-2005
– Addresses on Mobile
– Enable high-speed signal handoffs
necessary for communication with users
moving at vehicular speeds
12
IEEE 802.16

.
• IEEE 802.16a: It covers frequency bands between 2 and 11 GHz and enables non
line-of-sight (NLOS) operation, making it an appropriate technology for last-mile
applications where obstacles such as trees and buildings often present and where
base stations may need to be unobtrusively mounted on the roofs of homes or
buildings rather than towers on mountains.
• The 802.16a has a range of up to 30 miles with a typical cell radius of 4 to 6 miles.
• Within the typical cell radius NLOS performance and throughputs are optimal. In
addition, the 802.16a provides an ideal wireless backhaul technology to connect
802.11 WLAN and commercial 802.11 hotspots with the Internet.
• The 802.16 delivers high throughput at long ranges with a high spectral efficiency.

13
 WIMAX System: General Features
• Subsystems:
– A WiMAX tower
• similar in concept to a cell-phone tower - A single WiMAX tower can
provide coverage to a very large area as big as ~8,000 square km.
– A WiMAX client terminal
• The terminal receiver and antenna could be a small box or Personal
Computer Memory card, or they could be built into a laptop the
way WiFi access is today
• Range: 50km from base station
• Speed: 70 Megabits per second
• Frequency bands: 2 to 11 and 10 to 66 (licensed and unlicensed bands)
• IEEE 802.16 standards define both MAC and PHY layers and allow multiple
PHY layer specifications

14
WiMAX Forum

• Is an industry group founded in April 2001

– Consists of services providers, manufacturers, and related companies
that have joined together to promote the family of technologies based
upon the IEEE 802.16 standard
– Ensure interoperability of IEEE 802.16* and other interoperable (ETSI
HiperMAN*) systems
– Equivalent in purpose to Wi-Fi Alliance for IEEE 802.11
• Develop Conformance Test Specifications
• Host interoperability events
– Provide WiMAX-Certified stamp of approval

15
 Players in WiMAX Forum
 WiMAX Forum has >500 members
(530 as at 26/11/08)
 WiMAX members represent over
75% of current 2-11 GHz BWA
equipment sales!

And a lot more…..

Source: WiMAx Forum

16
 WiMAX and IEEE 802.16

• “WiMAX” is a subset of IEEE 802.16

– No new features can be added
• Mandatory features in 802.16 are mandatory in
WiMAX, if included
• Optional features in 802.16 may be optional,
mandatory or not included
Fixed WiMAX –
256 OFDM
IEEE 802.16
World WiBro
Mobile WiMAX -
OFDMA Source: WiMAx Forum

17
MODES OF OPERATION

• WiMax can provide 2 forms of wireless service:

– Non-LOS
• Wi-Fi sort of service, where a small antenna on a computer
connects to the tower.
• Uses lower frequency range (2 to 11 GHz).
– LOS
• where a fixed antenna points straight at the WiMax tower from
a rooftop or pole.
• The LOS connection is stronger and more stable: higher
throughput.
• Uses higher frequencies: reaching a possible 66 GHz.
• Through stronger LOS antennas, higher range can be achieved:
up to 50km radius.

18
 Broadband Usage
Scenarios Non Line of Sight
Point to Multi-
Multi-point
Line of Sight
BACKHAUL
802.16
• Fixed wireless access (FWA)
802.16
– Wireless access application in which the
location of the end-user termination and
the network access point to be
connected to the end-user are fixed.
• Backhaul for business 802.11
Telco Core
Network or
Private (Fiber)

• Consumer last mile

Network

• Nomadic wireless access (NWA) INTERNET

BACKBONE

– Wireless access application in which the

location of the end-user termination FRACTIONAL

may be in different places but it must be

E1/T1 for SMALL
E1/T1+ LEVEL BUSINESS
SERVICE ENTERPRISE

stationary while in use. 802.16 PC

Card

• Mobile wireless access (MWA) Laptop Connected

– Wireless access application in which the Through 802.16

location of the end-user termination is

mobile.
Source: WiMAx Forum

19
Types of access supported by WiMax

Source: WiMax Forum

20
 History & Evolution

21
Why (earlier) BWA solutions have not taken off?

Wireless Solutions Before WiMax:

 Proprietary, vertical solutions
 No volume silicon market – lack economies of scale
 Lack of global spectrum
Service Providers
Equipment Mfrs Focus

Economies of Ethernet
System scale as

Volume
Integration
Network Software
WiMax is an
open
System Design & standard
Architecture solution

Custom MAC

Custom, 802.11 or
DOCSIS PHY
Custom Radio 1980s 1990s 2000 2010
Source: WiMAx Forum

22
 802.16 Standard History 2008 530

2006
Membership

802.16-2004 Fixed 343 members

Broadband Wireless
2005 802.16e Combined
Standard
(Revised : Covers <11 GHz NLOS & 10- Fixed and Mobile
66 GHz LOS Systems) Amendment
802.16c System Profiles for <11 GHz
for 10-66 GHz LOS Systems
2004 Licensed Systems
(Inactive)
2003 (Formally approved in
55 members 65 members December 2005)
2002
1999 802.16a Fixed
802.16 Fixed Broadband Broadband Wireless
IEEE 802.16
Wireless Standard for Standard for 2-11
Working Group
10-66 GHz LOS Systems GHz Non-LOS
Started
(Inactive) Systems
(Inactive)

Time
Source: Intel & WiMax Forum
23
 WiMax Spectrum

24
 Global spectrum bands

• WiMax Forum is focusing on 3 spectrum bands for global deployment:

• Unlicensed 5 GHz:
– Includes bands between 5.25 and 5.85 GHz. In the upper 5 GHz band (5.725 –
5.850 GHz) many countries allow higher power output (4 Watts) that makes it
attractive for WiMax applications.
– Unlicensed fixed outdoor services
• Licensed 3.5 GHz:
– Bands between 3.4 and 3.6 GHz have been allocated for BWA in majority of
countries.
– Explicitly allow Nomadic use in Fixed Wireless spectrum to support indoor
modems and laptops
• Licensed 2.5 GHz:
– The bands between 2.5 and 2.6 GHz have been allocated in the US, Mexico, Brazil
and in some SEA countries. In US this spectrum is licensed for MDS and ITFS.
– New mobile services model and can address the broadband digital divide.

25
 Licensed vs. License-Exempt
Solutions
Licensed Solution License-Exempt
Solution
FDD TDD
Better QoS Fast Rollout
Better NLOS Lower Costs
reception at lower
frequencies
Higher barriers for More worldwide
entrance options

26
 Wimax Network CSN: Connectivity Service Network
ASN: Access Service Network
NSP: Network Service Provider

System Architecture NAP: Network Access Provider

HA: Home Agent, FA: Foreign Agent
AAA: Authentication, Authorization and
Accounting

Home CSN Visited CSN

HA AAA HA NSP

ASN

ASN GW ASN GW
BS
BS (FA) (FA)

NAP

Mesh
BS
BS BS BS

P2MP or P2P
MS
27
Wimax Network System Architecture

WiMAX network architecture

Subscriber Station, SS / Mobile Station, MS :  
 The Subscriber station, SS may often be referred to as the Customer Premises
Equipment, CPE.
 These take a variety of forms and these may be termed "indoor CPE" or "outdoor
CPE”.
 he outdoor CPE has the advantage that it provides better performance as a
result of the better position of the antenna, whereas the indoor CPE can be
installed by the user.
 Mobile Stations may also be used. These are often in the form of a dongle for a
laptop, etc.

28
Wimax Network System Architecture

WiMAX network architecture

Base Station, BS:
   The base-station forms an essential element of the WiMAX network.
 It is responsible for providing the air interface to the subscriber and mobile
stations.
 It provides additional functionality in terms of micro-mobility management
functions, such as handoff triggering and tunnel establishment, radio resource
management, QoS policy enforcement, traffic classification, session
management, and multicast group management.

29
Wimax Network System Architecture

WiMAX network architecture

ASN Gateway, ASN-GW:  
The ASN gateway within the WiMAX network architecture typically acts as a layer 2
traffic aggregation point within the overall ASN.
The ASN-GW may also provide additional functions that include: intra-ASN location
management and paging, radio resource management and admission control,
caching of subscriber profiles and encryption keys.
The ASN-GW may also include the AAA client functionality, establishment and
management of mobility tunnel with base stations, QoS and policy enforcement,
foreign agent functionality for mobile IP, and routing to the selected CSN.

30
Wimax Network System Architecture

WiMAX network architecture

Home Agent, HA:  
 The Home Agent within the WiMAX network is located within the CSN.
 With Mobile-IP forming a key element within WiMAX technology, the Home Agent
works in conjunction with a "Foreign Agent", such as the ASN Gateway, to provide
an efficient end-to-end Mobile IP solution.
 The Home Agent serves as an anchor point for subscribers, providing secure
roaming with QOS capabilities.
Authentication, Authorisation and Accounting Server, AAA: 
  As with any communications or wireless system requiring subscription services,
an Authentication, Authorisation and Accounting server is used. This is included
within the CSN.

31
802.16 Network Architectures

P2P
 Point-to-Point (P2P) P2MP
Architecture
 BS to BS
 P2MP Architecture Telco Core
 BS serves several Network

Subscriber Stations (SS) INTERNET

 Provides SS with first

mile access to Public
Networks
 Mesh Architecture
 Optional architecture
for WiMAX

32
 Wireless Metropolitan Area Networks (WMAN)

IEEE 802.16 Protocol Architecture

IEEE 802.16 is a broadband wireless access network standard that describes two layers, PHY and
MAC to provide services for Point-to-Multipoint (PMP) broadband wireless access.

33 Lecture 33: WMAN

 Wireless Metropolitan Area Networks (WMAN)

IEEE 802.16 lays down the standards for physical layer and data link layer.
Physical Layer − The two popular services of the physical layer are fixed WiMAX and
mobile WiMAX.
They operate in the licensed spectrum below 11 GHz.
Fixed WiMAX was released in 2003 and uses OFDM; while mobile WiMAX was released
in 2005 and uses scalable OFDM.

34 Lecture 33: WMAN

 Wireless Metropolitan Area Networks (WMAN)

MAC Layer
The MAC layer refers to an interface that reads data between the physical layer and
the data link layer.
The main goal of the MAC layer is to provide support to PMP architecture using a
central base station that controls the subscriber stations connected to it.
The 802.16 MAC protocol is connection based, which when connected to a network,
every subscriber station creates one or multiple connections with the help of which
data can be transmitted.
A 16-bit unique Connection Identification (CID) is assigned to the transport
connection by the base station.
 All uplink connections are unicast and all the downlink connections can be either
unicast or multicast.

35 Lecture 33: WMAN

 Wireless Metropolitan Area Networks (WMAN)

This layer is subdivided into three sublayers −

 Security sublayer − This is the bottommost layer and is concerned with security
and privacy of the wireless network.
 It deals with encryption, decryption and key management.

 MAC common sublayer − The MAC sublayer is concerned with channel

management.
 The channel management is connection oriented, a feature that plays due to which
quality of service (QoS) guarantees are given to the subscriber.
 The base station controls the system. It schedules the channels from base station to
the subscriber (downlink channels) and also manages the channels from the
subscriber to the base station (uplink channels).

36 Lecture 33: WMAN

 Wireless Metropolitan Area Networks (WMAN)

Service Specific Convergence Sub-layer (CS):

 This is equivalent to logical link control layer of other systems.
 It provides the required services and interface to network layer.
 The service specific convergence sub-layer (CS) provides any transformation or
mapping of external network data, received through the CS service access point
(SAP) into MAC SDUs received by the MAC CPS through the MAC SAP.
 Accepts higher layer protocol data units (PDUs) from the higher layer.
 Perform classification of higher layer PDUs and associates them to the proper
service flow identified by the connection identifier (CID).
 Delivering CS PDUs to the appropriate MAC SAP.

37 Lecture 33: WMAN

 Wireless Metropolitan Area Networks (WMAN)

Service Specific Convergence Sub-layer (CS):

 This is equivalent to logical link control layer of other systems.
 It provides the required services and interface to network layer.
 The service specific convergence sub-layer (CS) provides any transformation or
mapping of external network data, received through the CS service access point
(SAP) into MAC SDUs received by the MAC CPS through the MAC SAP.
 Accepts higher layer protocol data units (PDUs) from the higher layer.
 Perform classification of higher layer PDUs and associates them to the proper
service flow identified by the connection identifier (CID).
 Delivering CS PDUs to the appropriate MAC SAP.

38 Lecture 33: WMAN

 Wireless Metropolitan Area Networks (WMAN)

IEEE 802.16 Protocol Architecture cont…..

PHY Layer
 802.16 uses scalable OFDMA to carry data, supporting channel bandwidths of between 1.25 MHz
and 20 MHz, with up to 2048 subcarriers.
 It supports adaptive modulation and coding, so that in conditions of good signal, a highly efficient
64 QAM coding scheme is used, whereas when the signal is poorer, a more robust BPKS coding
mechanism is used.
 In intermediate conditions, 16 QAM and QPSK can also be employed.
 Other PHY features include support for multiple-input multiple-output (MIMO) antennas in order
to provide good non-line-of-sight propagation  (NLOS) characteristics (or higher bandwidth)
and hybrid automatic repeat request (HARQ) for good error correction performance.
 Although the standards allow operation in any band from 2 to 66 GHz, mobile operation is best in
the lower bands which are also the most crowded, and therefore most expensive.

39 Lecture 33: WMAN

Unit No: 4 Emerging Wireless Technologies and standards

Lecture No:34
WLAN-802.11
Wi-Fi

• Wi-Fi is trademarked name for popular wireless technology that uses radio
waves to provide high-speed Internet and network connections.
• The governing body that owns the term Wi-Fi, the Wi-Fi Alliance, defines it
as any WLAN (wireless area network) products that are based on the
Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers’ (IEEE) 802.11 standards.
• The way Wi-Fi works is through the use of radio signals like in phones.
• Specifications
• 802.11a
• 802.11b
• 802.11g
• 802.11n
Background

1990 : 802.11 development started by IEEE

The aim was to develop a standards for medium access control (MAC) and physical
layer (PHY)

1997 : First version of 802.11 standard was ratified

First version delivered 1Mb/s and 2Mb/s data rates

1999 : 802.11a and 802.11b amendments were released Data rates improved to
5.5Mb/s and 11Mb/s at 2.4GHz (802.11) Wired Equivalent Privace (WEP) introduced
5GHz operation with OFDM modulation at 54Mb/s (802.11a)

2001 : FCC approved the use of OFDM at 2.4GHz

2003 : OFDM modulation at 54Mb/s at 2.4GHz (802.11g)

42
 Background

2009 : 801.11n amendment were ratified

PHY relies heavily on multiple-input multiple-output (MIMO) technology
Can use both 2.4Ghz and 5Ghz at the same time
Throughput increased even up to 600Mbps

2009 : Bluetooth 3.0 + HS

802.11 selected as the Bluetooth high speed channel

2009 : Wi-Fi direct specification introduced 2011 : 802.11ac

More throughput with wider bandwith, more MIMO streams and
wider 256-QAM modulation. Provides 500-1000Mbps throughput

43
 Benefits of Wi-Fi

Mobility
Compatibility with IP networks
High speed data
 Unlicenced frequencies
Security
Easy and fast installation
Scalability
Installed infrastucture Low cost

44
WLAN-802.11

 Wi-Fi stands for Wireless Fidelity.

 It is a technology for wireless local area networking with devices based on 
IEEE 802.11 standards.
 Wi-Fi compatible devices can connect to the internet via WLAN network and a
wireless access point abbreviated as AP.
 Every WLAN has an access point which is responsible for receiving and transmitting
data from/to users.
 IEEE has defined certain specifications for wireless LAN, called IEEE 802.11 which
covers physical and data link layers.
 Access Point(AP) is a wireless LAN base station that can connect one or many
wireless devices simultaneously to internet.

45 Lecture 34: WMAN-80216a

 The architecture of this standard has 2 kinds of services:
1. BSS (Basic Service Set)
2. ESS (Extended Service Set)
  BSS is the basic building block of WLAN. It is made of wireless mobile stations and
an optional central base station called Access Point.
 Stations can form a network without an AP and can agree to be a part of a BSS.
 A BSS without an AP cannot send data to other BSSs and defines a standalone
network. It is called Ad-hoc network or Independent BSS(IBSS).i.e A BSS without
AP is an ad-hoc network.
 A BSS with AP is infrastructure network.

46
• ESS is made up of 2 or more BSSs with APs. BSSs are connected to the
distribution system via their APs. The distribution system can be any IEEE LAN
such as Ethernet.
• Distribution System (DS): A system to interconnect two or more BSS Typically
wired Ethernet Could be also wireless like 802.11, WiMax, 3G/4G etc.
• ESS has 2 kinds of stations:
• 1. Mobile – stations inside the BSS
2. Stationary – AP stations that are part of wired LAN.

47
 802.11 - infrastructure network
(PCF)•Station (STA)
802.11 LAN – terminal with access mechanisms
802.x LAN
to the wireless medium and radio
contact to the access point
STA1 •Basic Service Set (BSS)
BSS1
– group of stations using the same
Access Portal radio frequency
Point •Access Point
Distribution System – station integrated into the
wireless LAN and the distribution
Access
ESS system
Point
•Portal
BSS2 – bridge to other (wired) networks
•Distribution System
– interconnection network to form
one logical network (EES:
STA2 802.11 LAN STA3 Extended Service Set) based
on several BSS

48
• AP – client services:
• Authentication : open, shared key or WPS
• De-authentication
• Privacy : WEP, WPA or WPA2
• Distribution System services:
• Association : maps the client into the distribution system via access point
Disassociation : release of association
• Distribution : used to deliver MAC frames across the distribution system
• Integration : enables delivery of MAC frames between DS and non 802.11
• Re-association : transition of association from one access point to an other

49
802.11 Architecture

Application

HTTP, FTP, SMTP etc. DHCP, RTP, TFTP etc.

Host

TCP UDP

IP

802.2 Logical Link Control (LLC)

802.11 Media Access Control (MAC) Radio

Physical layer (PHY)

(802.11b DSSS, 802.11g OFDM, 802.11n MIMO etc.)

50
802.11- in the TCP/IP stack

fixed terminal
mobile terminal

server

infrastructure network

access point

application application
TCP TCP
IP IP
LLC LLC LLC
802.11 MAC 802.11 MAC 802.3 MAC 802.3 MAC
802.11 PHY 802.11 PHY 802.3 PHY 802.3 PHY

51
52
 Physical layer

53
 Physical layer

 The Physical layer is divided into three sub layers.

1. The Physical Layer Convergence Procedure (PLCP)
acts as an adaption layer.
The PLCP is responsible for the Clear Channel Assessment (CCA) mode and building
packets for different physical layer technologies.
2. The Physical Medium Dependent (PMD) layer specifies modulation and coding
techniques.
3. The PHY management layer takes care of the management issues like channel
tuning.
The Station management sub layer is responsible for co-ordination of interactions
between the MAC and PHY layers.
This primer focuses on the PHY layer as this is where the design requirements for the
device hardware using the different techniques of the 802.11 standards are realized.

54
 Physical layer

2.4 GHz and/or 5GHz transciever Industrial

Scientific Medical (ISM) band License free

Spread spectrum technology

FHSS, DSSS abnd OFDM modulations

FHSS (Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum)

Bandwidth divided into 75 1MHz channels
Data throughput limited to 2Mbps because of hopping overhead and FCC
regulations (1 Mhz channel bandwidth)

DSSS (Direct Sequency Spread Spectrum)

Bandwidth divided into 14 22MHz channels
Channels overlap partially

OFDM (Orthogonal Frequecy-Division Multiplexing)

20 or 40MHz bandwidth
Uses several non-overlapping channels Channels
overlap partially
55
56
 The features of the PHY are-
 activation and deactivation of the radio transceiver, energy detection (ED), link
quality indication (LQI), channel selection, clear channel assessment (CCA) and
transmitting as well as receiving packets across the physical medium.
 The standard provides two options based on the frequency band.
 Both are based on direct sequence spread spectrum (DSSS).
 The data rate is 250 kbps at 2.4 GHz, 40 kbps at 915 MHz, and 20 kbps at 868 MHz.
 The higher rate at 2.4 GHz is attributed to a higher-order modulation scheme.
 Lower frequency provides longer range due to lower propagation losses.
 Low rate can be translated into better sensitivity and larger coverage area.
 Higher rate means higher throughput, lower latency, or lower duty cycle.

57
58
 To maintain a common simple interface with MAC, both PHY share a single packet
structure.
 Each PPDU contains a synchronization header (preamble plus start of packet
delimiter), a PHY header to indicate the packet length, and the payload, or PHY service
data unit (PSDU).
 The 32-bit preamble is designed for the acquisition of symbol and chip timing, and in
some cases may be used for coarse frequency adjustment.
 Within the PHY header, 7 bits are used to specify the length of the payload (in bytes).
This supports packets of length 0–127 bytes

59
 Difference between wired and wireless

Ethernet LAN Wireless LAN

B
A B C
A C

• If both A and C sense the channel to be idle at the same

time, they send at the same time.
• Collision can be detected at sender in Ethernet.
• Half-duplex radios in wireless cannot detect collision at
sender.
60
Carrier Sense Multiple Access (CSMA)

• Listen before you speak

• Check whether the medium is active before sending a packet
(i.e carrier sensing)
• If medium idle, then transmit
• If collision happens, then detect and resolve
• If medium is found busy, transmission follows:
– 1- persistent
– P- persistent
– Non-persistent

61
Collision detection (CSMA/CD)

• All aforementioned scheme can suffer from collision

• Device can detect collision
– Listen while transmitting
– Wait for 2 * propagation delay
• On collision detection wait for random time before retrying
• Binary Exponential Backoff Algorithm
– Reduces the chances of two waiting stations picking the same random time

62
Binary Exponential Backoff

1.On detecting 1st collision for packet x

station A chooses a number r between 0 and 1.
wait for r * slot time and transmit.
Slot time is taken as 2 * propagation delay k.
On detecting kth collision for packet x
choose r between 0,1,..,(2k –1)

• When value of k becomes high (10), give up.

• Randomization increase with larger window, but delay
increases.

Sridhar Iyer IIT Bombay 63

Hidden Terminal Problem

A B C

– A and C cannot hear each other.

– A sends to B, C cannot receive A.
– C wants to send to B, C senses a “free” medium (CS fails)
– Collision occurs at B.
– A cannot receive the collision (CD fails).
– A is “hidden” for C.

64
 Effect of interference range

Transmission from 1  2 will fail

 The exposed node problem occurs when a node

is prevented from sending packets to other
nodes because of co-channel interference with a
neighboring transmitter.
Solution for Hidden Terminals

• A first sends a Request-to-Send (RTS) to B

• On receiving RTS, B responds Clear-to-Send (CTS)
• Hidden node C overhears CTS and keeps quiet
– Transfer duration is included in both RTS and CTS
• Exposed node overhears a RTS but not the CTS
– D’s transmission cannot interfere at B

RTS RTS
D A B C
CTS CTS
DATA
Sridhar Iyer IIT Bombay 66
 Logical Link Control (LLC)

The LLC provides end-to-end link control over 802.11-based

wireless LAN

LLC services:

Unacknowledged connectionless service

Higher layers must take care of error and flow control mechanisms
Peer-to-peer, multicast and broadcast communication

Connection-oriented service
Error and flow control
Peer-to-peer communication

Acknowledged connectionless service

Flow and error control with stop-and wait ARQ
Peer-to-peer, multicast and broadcast communication
802.11 Media Access Control (MAC)

Manages and maintains communications between

802.11 stations and clients

Coordinates access to shared radio channels

Uses CSMA/CA algorithm to access the media (Carrier Sense
Multiple Access / Collision Avoidance)
 802.11 Media Access Control (MAC)

Function Explanation

Scanning Scanning of access points. Both active (probe) and passive (beacon) scanning are provided by
the standard.
Authentication is the process of proving identity between the client and the access
Authentication point.

Association Once authenticated, the client must associate with the access point before sending data
frames.

Encryption Encryption of payload

The optional request-to send and clear-to-send (RTS/CTS) function allows the acces point to
RTS/CTS control use of the medium for stations activating RTS/CTS.

Power Save
Mode The power save mode enables the user to turn on or off enables the radio.

Fragmentation The fragmentation function enables an 802.11 station to divide data packets into smaller
frames.
 802.11 Media Access Control (MAC)

• Distributed Coordination Function 

• One of the two protocols defined by IEEE at the MAC sublayer is called
the distributed coordination function (DCF) .
•  DCF uses CSMA/CA as the access.
•  Before sending any frame, the source station senses the medium by checking the
energy level at the carrier frequency.

70
802.11 Media Access Control (MAC)

IEEE 802.11 : Distributed Coordination Function▪

Decentralized
▪ Carrier sense multiple access (CSMA)
▪ Listen to the medium
▪ If idle, then transmit
▪ If not, wait a random time
▪ If busy again, expand the mean waiting time, randomly wait, and try again.
▪ Binary exponential backoff describes this procedure
▪ The backoff is the waiting process
▪ Mean random waiting times get exponentially larger
▪ By a factor of 2 each time, hence the term binary.
▪ This process responds to heavy loads
▪ Since nodes do not know the loads of other nodes trying to send.

71
802.11 Media Access Control (MAC)

• Point Co-ordination Function (PCF)

• The PCF is an optional access method that can be implemented in an
infrastructure network (not in an ad-hoc network ) .
• Centralized control
• Point coordinator polls devices
• To give them permission to send
• On a schedule the point coordinator determines
• PCF has a centralized contention-free polling access method. 
• The AP performs polling for stations that are capable  of being polled.
• The polling procedure is performed by the point coordinator (PC) in the AP within a
ESS.
• PCF is implemented on top of the DCF and is used mostly for time-sensitive
transmission.

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802.11 - MAC layer

• Traffic services
– Asynchronous Data Service (mandatory) – DCF
– Time-Bounded Service (optional) – PCF
• Access methods
– DCF CSMA/CA (mandatory)
• collision avoidance via randomized back-off
mechanism
• ACK packet for acknowledgements (not for
broadcasts)
– DCF w/ RTS/CTS (optional)
• avoids hidden terminal problem
– PCF (optional)
• access point polls terminals according to a list

73
802.11 - CSMA/CA
contention window
DIFS DIFS (randomized back-off
mechanism)

medium busy next frame

direct access if t
medium is free  DIFS slot time

– station ready to send starts sensing the medium (Carrier Sense based
on CCA, Clear Channel Assessment)
– if the medium is free for the duration of an Inter-Frame Space (IFS),
the station can start sending (IFS depends on service type)
– if the medium is busy, the station has to wait for a free IFS, then the
station must additionally wait a random back-off time (collision
avoidance, multiple of slot-time)
– if another station occupies the medium during the back-off time of the
station, the back-off timer stops (fairness)

74
 802.11 –CSMA/CA example
DIFS DIFS DIFS DIFS
boe bor boe bor boe busy
station1

boe busy
station2

busy
station3

boe busy boe bor

station4

boe bor boe busy boe bor

station5
t

busy medium not idle (frame, ack etc.) boe elapsed backoff time

packet arrival at MAC bor residual backoff time

 802.11 –RTS/CTS

• station can send RTS with reservation parameter after waiting for DIFS
(reservation determines amount of time the data packet needs the medium)
• acknowledgement via CTS after SIFS by receiver (if ready to receive)
• sender can now send data at once, acknowledgement via ACK
• other stations store medium reservations distributed via RTS and CTS

DIFS
RTS data
sender
SIFS SIFS
CTS SIFS ACK
receiver

NAV (RTS) DIFS

other NAV (CTS) data
stations t
defer access contention

76
 802.11 - PCF

t0 t1
SuperFrame

medium busy PIFS SIFS SIFS

D1 D2
point
coordinator SIFS SIFS
U1 U2
wireless
stations
stations‘ NAV
NAV
MAC Frame

All stations should be able to properly construct frames for transmission and decode frames
upon reception, as specified here.
802.11 MAC frame is composed of header, body and FCS part.
•   MAC header: It consists of frame control field, duration, address fields 1-4, sequence
control field.
•   Frame body: This field vary in size and consists of information based on frame type to be
carried.
•   FCS: stands for Frame Check Sequence, this is 32 bit CRC (i.e. cyclic redundancy code).

78
 MAC Frame

Frame Control(FC) –
It is 2 bytes long field which defines type of frame and some control information.
Version:It is a 2 bit long field which indicates the current protocol version which is fixed to be 0 for
now.
Type:It is a 2 bit long field which determines the function of frame i.e management(00), control(01) or
data(10). The value 11 is reserved.
Subtype: It is a 4 bit long field which indicates sub-type of the frame like 0000 for association request,
1000 for beacon.
To DS: It is a 1 bit long field which when set indicates that destination frame is for DS(distribution
system).
From DS: It is a 1 bit long field which when set indicates frame coming from DS.
More frag (More fragments): It is 1 bit long field which when set to 1 means frame is followed by
other fragments.
Retry: It is 1-bit long field, if the current frame is a retransmission of an earlier frame, this bit is set to
1.

79
MAC Frame

Power Mgmt (Power management): It is 1-bit long field that indicates the mode of a
station after successful transmission of a frame. Set to 1 the field indicates that the
station goes into power-save mode. If the field is set to 0, the station stays active.
More data: It is 1-bit long field that is used to indicate receiver that a sender has more
data to send than the current frame.
This can be used by an access point to indicate to a station in power-save mode that
more packets are buffered or it can be used by a station to indicate to an access point
after being polled that more polling is necessary as the station has more data ready to
transmit.
WEP: It is 1 bit long field which indicates that the standard security mechanism of
802.11 is applied.
Order:It is 1 bit long field, if this bit is set to 1 the received frames must be processed in
strict order.

80
MAC Frame

81
 MAC Frame

Duration/ID –
It is 4 bytes long field which contains the value indicating the period of time in which the
medium is occupied(in µs).
Address 1 to 4 –
These are 6 bytes long fields which contain standard IEEE 802 MAC addresses (48 bit
each). The meaning of each address depends on the DS bits in the frame control field.
SC (Sequence control) –
It is 16 bits long field which consists of 2 sub-fields, i.e., Sequence number (12 bits) and
Fragment number (4 bits). Since acknowledgement mechanism frames may be
duplicated hence, a sequence number is used to filter duplicate frames.
Data –
It is a variable length field which contain information specific to individual frames which
is transferred transparently from a sender to the receiver(s).
CRC (Cyclic redundancy check) –
It is 4 bytes long field which contains a 32 bit CRC error detection sequence to ensure
error free frame.

82
Enhancements and Applications

83
New Naming Standards :

Network Wi-Fi Standard

IEEE 802.11b Wi-Fi 1

IEEE 802.11a Wi-Fi 2

IEEE 802.11g Wi-Fi 3

IEEE 802.11n Wi-Fi 4

IEEE 802.11ac Wi-Fi 5

IEEE 802.11ax Wi-Fi 6

84
 Application of Wi-Fi
• Many electronic devices use Wi-Fi
due to its simple functions.

• Companies use Wi-Fi to create

wireless networks within their
company.

• Phone companies such as use Wi-

Fi Hot Spots for their users to get
free calling/internet access.

• Gaming companies like Nintendo

use Wi-Fi to synch their products
and to use global network usage.